New applications

Permits-to-work could be prepared and stored on a computer. The saving in effort would not be great, but additional functions are now possible. For example  

The computer could also remind the user of any problems encountered when the equipment was being prepared or maintained on earlier occasions. 

The number of possible incidents that might occur and warnings that might be given is enormous, and each plant would have to make a selection based on its own experience and that of the industry. The informa- 

One way of improving communication between chemical and software engineers would be to combine the jobs. There is a need for engineers who are equally at home in the two fields. 

Eddershaw, Lessons Learned from the Failure of a Computer System Controlling a Nylon Polymer Plant, Paper presented at Safety and Reliability Society Symposium, Altrincham, UK, Nov. 1987. 

---

Special probe geometries and combinations of different types of magnetic field sensors make an important contribution to the further improvement of the eddy-current testing method and results in new applications. 

New high performance and easy to use equipment make new applications possible. 

The oriented overgrowth of a crystalline phase on the surface of a substrate that is also crystalline is called epitaxial growth [104]. Usually it is required that the lattices of the two crystalline phases match, and it can be a rather complicated process [105]. Some new applications enlist amorphous substrates or grow new phases on a surface with a rather poor lattice match. 

Plenary 21B. A C Albrecht et al, e-mail address aca7 comell.edu (I CRS) (substituting for plenary 21 A). Discusses four new applications using a third approach to the Class II spectroscopies (see above). Raman... 

Clearly the broad survey of current activity in Raman spectroscopy revealed by this simple snapshot promises an exciting flitiire tiiat is likely to find surprising new applications, even as present methods and applications become refined. 

New metliods appear regularly. The principal challenges to the ingenuity of the spectroscopist are availability of appropriate radiation sources, absorption or distortion of the radiation by the windows and other components of the high-pressure cells, and small samples. Lasers and synchrotron radiation sources are especially valuable, and use of beryllium gaskets for diamond-anvil cells will open new applications. Impulse-stimulated Brillouin [75], coherent anti-Stokes Raman [76, 77], picosecond kinetics of shocked materials [78], visible circular and x-ray magnetic circular dicliroism [79, 80] and x-ray emission [72] are but a few recent spectroscopic developments in static and dynamic high-pressure research. 

Since tire early days of tliis field, tire scientific and technological advances have been chasing each otlier. Advances in teclmology enabled implementation of new ideas, which in turn suggested new applications. In tire last 50 years tills process has resulted in a series of unprecedented advances tliat have transfonned our society. There is, as of yet, no sign of a slowdown. 

Nitrile mbber finds broad application in industry because of its excellent resistance to oil and chemicals, its good flexibility at low temperatures, high abrasion and heat resistance (up to 120°C), and good mechanical properties. Nitrile mbber consists of butadiene—acrylonitrile copolymers with an acrylonitrile content ranging from 15 to 45% (see Elastomers, SYNTHETIC, NITRILE RUBBER). In addition to the traditional applications of nitrile mbber for hoses, gaskets, seals, and oil well equipment, new applications have emerged with the development of nitrile mbber blends with poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). These blends combine the chemical resistance and low temperature flexibility characteristics of nitrile mbber with the stability and ozone resistance of PVC. This has greatly expanded the use of nitrile mbber in outdoor applications for hoses, belts, and cable jackets, where ozone resistance is necessary. 

Uses. Currentiy, the principal use of lactic acid is in food and food-related applications, which in the United States accounts for approximately 85% of the demand. The rest ( 15%) of the uses are for nonfood industrial applications. The expected advent of the production of low cost lactic acid in high volume can open new applications for lactic acid and its derivatives, because it is a versatile molecule that can be converted to a wide range of industrial chemicals or polymer feedstocks (1,6,20). 

The chemical uses of tungsten have increased substantially in more recent years. Catalysis (qv) of photochemical reactions and newer types of soluble organometaUic complexes for industrially important organic reactions are among the areas of these new applications. 

Jpii P t 86-109401 (May 15, 1986), K. Kawakami and T. Tanabe (to Technology Research Association for New Application Development for Light-Weight Fractions, Japan). 

Superconductivity The physical state in which all resistance to the flow of direct-current electricity disappears is defined as superconductivity. The Bardeen-Cooper-Schriefer (BCS) theoiy has been reasonably successful in accounting for most of the basic features observed of the superconducting state for low-temperature superconductors (LTS) operating below 23 K. The advent of the ceramic high-temperature superconductors (HTS) by Bednorz and Miller (Z. Phys. B64, 189, 1989) has called for modifications to existing theories which have not been finahzed to date. The massive interest in the new superconductors that can be cooled with liquid nitrogen is just now beginning to make its way into new applications. 

A new application oF triboeleetrie separation involves the separation oF PVC From PET and other plasties. Recent developments in pre-eharging technology permit PVC to assume a strong negative charge and be removed cFFieientlv From properly protected mixed plastic Feedstocks (Fig, 19-62),... 

S.J. Shuttleworth, S.M. Allin and P.K. Sharma, Functionalised Polymers - Recent Developments and New Applications in Synthetic Organic Chemistry, Synthesis 1217-1239 7997. 

The success of expanders was predicted in the 1940s. More recently, processes similar to those used in air separation have been applied in other fields. These new applications have progressed as a result of the parallel development of new processes and improved heavy-duty turboexpanders. 

Every month a new application for the SEM appears in the literature, and there is no reason to assume that this growth will cease. The SEM is one of the more versatile of analytical instruments and it is often the first expensive instrument that a characterizadon laboratory will purchase. 

For applied work, an optical characterization technique should be as simple, rapid, and informative as possible. Other valuable aspects are the ability to perform measurements in a contactless manner at (or even above) room temperature. Modulation Spectroscopy is one of the most usehil techniques for studying the optical proponents of the bulk (semiconductors or metals) and surface (semiconductors) of technologically important materials. It is relatively simple, inexpensive, compact, and easy to use. Although photoluminescence is the most widely used technique for characterizing bulk and thin-film semiconductors. Modulation Spectroscopy is gainii in popularity as new applications are found and the database is increased. There are about 100 laboratories (university, industry, and government) around the world that use Modulation Spectroscopy for semiconductor characterization. 

As an example, we show in Figure 3 a backscattering spectrum from GaAs (110), obtained vwth a 300-keV Li ion beam. This is a well-chosen test example of energy resolution, as the atomic numbers of the two constituents are quite close (31 and 33 for Ga and As, respectively). Not only are these two species well resolved, but the two common isotopes of Ga are also well separated. Note that the peaks are asymmetric due to contributions from lower layers. Resolving power of this kind surely will find many new applications in materials science. 

ICPMS, although a young technique, has become a powerful tool for the analysis of a variety of materials. New applications are continually being developed. Advantages include the ability to test for almost all elements in a very short time and the high sensitivity of the technique. 

However, the discovery that exposure to light could increase substantially the electrical conductivity of this polymer, i.e. it is said to be photoconductive, has led to important new applications, particularly in xerography. 

LVHV applications have not developed rapidly. Initial concepts were developed for industrial applications in the 1950s and 1960s. Refinements were made and commercial products have been available from the 1970s until the present time. Unfortunately, there has not been much development of new applications. 

The development of electrostatic precipitators soon led to new applications, including the separation of metal oxide fumes. This was followed by various metal manufacturing processes such as the lead blast furnace, ore roaster, and reverberatory furnace. Electrostatic gas cleaning was soon applied also in cement kilns and in several exotic applications, such as recovering valuable metals from exhaust gases. 

Besides the conventional classification of flow shown in Fig. 14.3, there arc also other possibilities, sec, e.g., Leung, Independent of the method of classification, the essential point is that there is no general method and there are no general simple parameters that reliably predict the behavior of the flow in a new application. For each case the type ot flow has to be examined experimentally. 

Baldyga, J. and Bourne, J.R., 1989b. Simplification of micromixing calculations. II. New applications. Chemical Engineering Journal, 42, 93-101. 

In the past 20 years, the application of fluorinated reagents in chemistry experienced tremendous growth Some well known denvatives of hydrofluoric acid and tri-fluoroacetic acid found new applications, and many new classes of synthetically useful fluorinated organic and inorganic compounds have been synthesized... 

Perhaps one of the most exciting new applications stems from the discovery in 1949 that small daily doses (l-2g) of LI2C03 taken orally provide an effective treatment for manic-depressive psychoses. The mode of action is not well understood but there appear to be no undesirable side effects. The dosage maintains the level of Li in the blood at about I mmol l and its action may be related to the influence of Li on the Na/K balance and (or) the Mg/Ca balance since Li is related chemically to both pairs of elements. 

Current availability of individual lanthanides (plus Y and La) in a state of high purity and relatively low cost has stimulated research into potential new applications. These are mainly in the field of solid state chemistry and include solid oxide fuel cells, new phosphors and perhaps most significantly high temperature superconductors... 

These situations are treated as completely new applications which should include an explanation of the decision to develop the enantiomer or racemate. Data on the existing racemate or enantiomer may be included where appropriate with bridging studies as necessary. 

---