Mutagens disinfectants

The use of chlorine for disinfecting wastewaters or drinking water has become widespread in this century. Recently, however, the increasing presence and variety of aquatic contaminants has raised the question of the chemical fate of these contaminants when subjected to aqueous chlorination [36]. In fact, the production of organochlorine compounds in chlorinated water, including mutagenic and carcinogenic substances, is well established [37,38], A number of alternatives to chlorination are used in many parts of the world, but the risks associated with their by-products are even less well established [39],... 

Haloaldehydes are formed primarily with chlorine or chloramine disinfection, but they are increased in formation with preozonation. In the Nationwide Occurrence Study, haloaldehydes were the third largest DBP class by weight (behind THMs and HAAs) of all the DBPs studied. Dichloroacetaldehyde was the most abundant of these haloaldehydes, with a maximum concentration of 16 pg/L. Before this study, chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) was the only commonly measured haloaldehyde, and it was included in the ICR. Chloral hydrate and monochloroacetaldehyde are mutagenic in vitro [1], and tribromoacetaldehyde and chloral hydrate were recently found to be genotoxic in human cells [72]. 

Kundu B, Richardson SD, Swartz PD, Matthews PP, Richard AM, DeMarini DM (2004) Mutagenicity in Salmonella of halonitromethanes a recently recognized class of disinfection by-products in drinking water. Mutat Res 562(l-2) 39-65... 

Richardson SD, DeMarini DM, Kogevinas M, Fernandez P, Marco E, Lourencetti C, Balleste C, Heederik D, Meliefste K, McKague AB, Marcos R, Font-Ribera L, Grimalt JO, Villanueva CM (2010) What s in the pool A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water. Environ Health Perspect 118(11) 1523-1530... 

Meier JR, Bull RJ, Stober JA, et al. 1985. Evaluation of chemicals used for drinking water disinfection for production of chromosomal damage and sperm-head abnormalities in mice. Environ Mutagen 7 201-211. 

Monarca S, Feretti D, Collivignarelli C, et al. 2000. The influence of different disinfectants on mutagenicity and toxicity of urban wastewater. Water Res 34(17) 4261-4269. 

Zoeteman BCJ, Hmbec J, de Greef E, et al. 1982. Mutagenic activity associated with by-products of drinking water disinfection by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone and UV-irradiation. Environ Health Perspect 46 197-205. 

Jolley, R. L. et al. Nonvolatile Organics in Disinfected Wastewater Effluents Chemical Characterization and Mutagenicity MERL. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, DC, 1982 EPA-600/2-82-017. 

Considerable information of a general nature is available for uncontaminated water subject to the production of disinfection byproducts. The mutagens produced by drinking water chlorination appear to be numerous, but they exist either at low levels or are of low potency. For both the unresolved mixtures and for the few mutagenic compounds thus far identified, activity is readily reduced or destroyed by treatment with alkali or 4-nitrothiophenol and may be removed by GAC treatment. From water sources subject both to mutagen formation via disinfection and to periodic contamination by toxic chemicals, experimental full-scale GAC treatment systems have provided mutagen-free water. 

Disinfection with Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide. The comparison of the mutagenic activity of the DCM extract before and after disinfection treatment was studied by the Wilcoxon test. No statistical conclusions on disinfection effects can be drawn. However, the MeOH extract showed a significant decrease in mutagenic activity for the line 2 chlorine treatment. Comparison of the two disinfection treatments for the nonozonated GAC filtered water (treatment line 4) shows that chlorine disinfection yields greater mutagenic activity of the DCM extract than chlorine dioxide (Table V). 

Complete Treatment Line. The Wilcoxon test was applied to compare mutagenic activity before RSF and after complete treatment lines. Treatment line 4 with chlorine dioxide disinfection significantly decreased the mutagenic activity of the DCM extract. No other statistically significant differences were observed for any other treatment lines from data on DCM or MeOH extracts (Table VI). 

Table V. Critical Probabilities (%) for the Evolution of Mutagenicity with Disinfection (Wilcoxon Test Analysis on TA98 Data)...

By using the factor analysis method, the mutagenicity data were applied only on water after disinfection. Then, comparisons were made between treatment lines (Figure 4). By using the same interpretation (i.e., assigning weights of 3, 2, or 1) as that used for the ozone and GAC treatment, the conclusions based on ordered classifications of treatment lines for each month and for the year are the following Treatment line 1 is the best line of the pilot plant and yields a 92 relative ideal complete treatment line, treatment line 2 is 66 , and treatment line 4 is 41 (Table VII). 

Disinfection with chlorine dioxide treatment of nonozonated GAC-filtered water was less mutagenic than chlorine treatment. 

Huck P M, Anderson W B, Savage E, von Borstel R C, Daignult S A, Rector D W, Irvine G A, Williams D T (1987) Pilot Scale evaluation of ozone and other drinking water disinfectants using mutagenicity testing, 8th Ozone world congress, Zurich, Switzerland, September, C29-C54. 

The activity of EtO, similar to many other disinfectants, preservative, and sterilizing agents, such as formaldehyde, beta-propiolactone, methylbromide, and ethylenimine, depends on an alkylation reaction. This reaction occurs with some groups within the complex enzymes, proteins, and nucleic acids in the bacterial cell. These compounds can then no longer be effective or necessary to the vital processes of the microorganism cell. Furthermore, one would expect these effects to vary according to the extensions of reactions static, mutagenic, or toxic. 

Ozonization for water disinfection is returning instead of chlorination however, it is not devoid of potential dangers when micropollutants react with ozone. Thus, an aqueous solution of 3-phenylenediamine (lk) led to formation of the strongly mutagenic 2-amino-5-[(3-aminophenyl)amino] -4- (3-ami nophenyl)imino] -2,5-cyclohexadien-1 -one (66)89. 

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