Maillard reactions flavor development

Nursten, H. E. (1986a). Aroma compounds from the Maillard reaction. In Developments in Food Flavors (G. G. Birch and M. G. Lindley, eds.), p. 173. Elsevier, London. 

Human perception of flavor occurs from the combined sensory responses elicited by the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and Maillard reaction products in the food. Proteins Chapters 6, 10, 11, 12) and their constituents and sugars Chapter 12) are the primary effects of taste, whereas the lipids Chapters 5, 9) and Maillard products Chapter 4) effect primarily the sense of smell (olfaction). Therefore, when studying a particular food or when designing a new food, it is important to understand the structure-activity relationship of all the variables in the food. To this end, several powerful multivariate statistical techniques have been developed such as factor analysis Chapter 6) and partial least squares regression analysis Chapter 7), to relate a set of independent or "causative" variables to a set of dependent or "effect" variables. Statistical results obtained via these methods are valuable, since they will permit the food... 

The studies reviewed demonstrate that browning products produced on retorting of meat inhibit development of WOF, so that canned meat products are not subject to this flavor defect. The flavor of canned meat is less desirable, however, than that of freshly cooked meat. Nevertheless, the strong inhibitory action of the Maillard reaction products against WOF suggests that they could be useful in preventing development of WOF, so further research in this area could be fruitful. 

Maillard reactions can be involved in the manufacture of foods in at least three quite different ways. First, there is the unconscious role played in the development of flavor in such traditional processes as the roasting of coffee and cacao beans, the baking of breads and cakes, and the cooking of meats. Second, there is the deliberate use of Maillard technology in the production of artificial (or engineered) foods and flavors. Third, there are the efforts to inhibit undesirable results of Maillard reactions in food processing today. 

A common thread that can link the ammonium and peptone catalyst poisoning results just described could be the Maillard reactions of amino acids with sugars (5). Recent studies have shown that the ammonium ion is highly reactive, more so than substituted versions (6). Its use as ammonium bicarbonate in developing flavoring compounds by Maillard reactions in extrusion cookers has been reported (7). It is likely that such reactions could occur at our processing conditions. We can speculate that such products could have acted as catalyst surface poisons, which might have been subsequently washed from the catalyst, before it was reused in its active form. 

The reaction pathways for the Maillard Reactions have been studied and reviewed by many researchers since Dr. Maillard s early work (4—6) These papers give a concise outline of the major chemical pathways identified in the Maillard Reaction Mechanism. In heat treated meat with nearly 75% of those volatiles generated are pyrazines derivatives (7). Those pyrazines have been found to play an important role in developing a roasted flavor in heated products. They will be discussed later. 

What is the current use of the research results Needless to say, the food industry has found use for a great deal of the information. The industry has used the knowledge to control processes and hence to develop better tasting food products. However, one of the most intriguing uses of the information has been in the development of flavorings. The first patent for the use of the Maillard Reaction to create processed flavor, as the Flavor Industry refers to it, was... 

Process Meat Flavor Development and the Maillard Reaction... 

The flavor industry has introduced, over the years, methods of developing meat flavors by processing appropriate precursors under carefully controlled reaction conditions. As a result, meat flavors having a remarkably genuine meat character in the beef, chicken and pork tonalities are available for the food industry. It has repeatedly been stated that the Maillard reaction is particularly important for the formation of meat flavors. However, of the 600 volatile compounds isolated from natural beef aroma, only 12% of them find their origin in sugar/amino acid interactions and of these 70% are pyrazine derivatives. 

In heated foods the main reactions by which flavors are formed are the Maillard reaction and the thermal degradation of lipids. These reactions follow complex pathways and produce reactive intermediates, both volatile and non-volatile. It has been demonstrated that lipids, in particular structural phospholipids, are essential for the characteristic flavor development in cooked meat and that the interaction of lipids with products of the Maillard reaction is an important route to flavor. When model systems containing amino acids and ribose were heated in aqueous buffer, the addition of phospholipids had a significant effect on the aroma and on the volatile products. In addition a number of heterocyclic compounds derived from lipid - Maillard interactions were found. The extent of the interaction depends on the lipid structure, with phospholipids reacting much more readily than triglycerides. 

It has been known for many years that Maillard Reaction products can behave as antioxidants in food systems (13,14), and they have been shown to inhibit warmed-over flavor development in cooked meat which is caused by the autoxidation of lipids, especially phospholipids. There has been a significant amount of research examining the Maillard reaction products and intermediates from model systems which may have antioxidative properties. 

The purpose of this book is to review aromas that are developed by thermal processes. Because the flavor of heated foods is affected principally by aroma, we focus attention exclusively on the volatile flavor constituents of foods. Moreover, we intend this book to complement the 1986 book. Biogeneration of Aromas, ACS Symposium Series 317, edited by Thomas H. Parliment and Rodney Croteau. A broader overview of the Maillard reaction was discussed in the 1983 book, The Maillard Reaction in Foods and Nutrition, ACS Symposium Series 215, edited by George R. Waller and Milton S. Feather, which addressed the volatile, nonvolatile, and nutritional aspects of the Maillard reaction. 

The Maillard reaction plays an important role in flavor development, especially in meat and savory flavor (Buckholz, 1988). Products of the Maillard reaction are aldehydes, acids, sulfur compounds (e.g., hydrogen sulfide and methanethiol), nitrogen compounds (e.g., ammonia and amines), and heterocyclic compounds such as furans, pyrazines, pyrroles, pyridines, imidazoles, oxazoles, thiazoles, thiophenes, di- and trithiolanes, di- and trithianes, and furanthiols (Martins et al., 2001). Higher temperature results in production of more heterocyclic compounds, among which many have a roasty, toasty, or caramel-like aroma. 

Ouweland, G.A.M., Demole, E.P., and Enggist, P, Process meat flavor development and the Maillard reaction, in Thermal Generation of Aromas, Parliment, H., McGorrin, J.M., and Ho, C.T., Eds., American Chemical Society, Los Angeles, 1988, p. 433. 

Cysteine is an important precursor of meat flavor and is therefore often being used in precursor systems for the industrial production of meat process flavorings (1-4). Meat flavor development in these systems is usually based on the Maillard reaction of cysteine (and other amino acids) with sugars. Unfortunately, there are a few complications that prevent that high yields of volatile flavor compounds are obtained from these reactions. The first... 

In mixtures of amino acids and sugars, meat flavor can be developed via different pathways. Cysteine does not only generate meat flavor via keto-L-cysteines but it reacts also with (the decomposition products of) the Amadori compounds of other amino acids to produce meat flavors that are of comparable intensity (5). This means that there are at least two major pathways to meat flavor development in such Maillard reaction systems ... 

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