Nematodes, entomopathogenic

Read, A.F. and Skorping, A. (1995a) Causes and consequences of life history variation in parasitic nematodes. In Abad, P., Burnell, A., Laumond, C., Boemare, N. and Coudert, F. (eds) Ecology and Transmission Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes (COST 819). European Commission, Brussels, pp. 58-68. 

Grenier, E., Bonifassi, E., Abad, P. and Laumond, C. (1996) Use of species-specific satellite DNAs as diagnostic probes in the identification of Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae entomopathogenic nematodes. Parasitology 113, 483-489. 

Keywords Bioagent Entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis In-vitro In-vivo Moraxella Phasmarhabditis Photorhabdus Slug-parasitic Steinernema Xenorhabdus... 

Table 13.1 Entomopathogenic nematodes and their symbiotically associated bacteria (Reproduced...

The two different techniques for mass production of entomopathogenic nematodes are (i) in vivo, and (ii) in vitro. Production of entomopathogenic nematodes depend upon the area to be applied as well as the type of nematode species used. If a small plot is to be applied as for research purpose, the in vivo production technique would be appropriate, otherwise for fields in vitro methods are used. 

White trap (White 1927) is one of the most common methods to produce entomopathogenic nematodes. Insects are inoculated with entomopathogenic nematodes on a petridish lined with filter paper. After 2-5 days, the infected insects are transferred to the White trap. The White trap consist of an inverted watch glass placed in a petridish on which Whatman paper of appropriate size is placed and moistened with sterilized distilled water. Adequate amount of distilled water is also maintained on and around the watch glass. As the infective juveniles emerge from the cadaver they migrate to the surrounding water and get trapped. The nematodes are harvested from the White trap and collected in a beaker. The concentration of nematodes can be accomplished by... 

Fig. 13.1 Entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema masoodi multiplying over the body of Galleria mellonella larva (Reproduced from Ali et al. 2005b)... 

The nematodes can be harvested from the flask in about 15 days. A 20 mesh sieve is taken and foam pieces are piled 5 cm deep on it. The sieve is then placed in a pan and brought near water tap with water level adjusted so that the foam pieces are just submerged. It is left for 2 h. During this period infective juveniles will migrate into the water. The nematodes may be sedimented and rinsed to remove particulate matter and inactive or dead juveniles. The infective juveniles thus obtained should be rinsed with specialized distilled water for several times to make the suspension clear. Various other synthetic media tested to mass culture of entomopathogenic nematodes have been enlisted (Table 13.3). 

Table 13.3 Different media recommended for production of entomopathogenic nematodes...

Table 13.4 Expected shelf life of different entomopathogenic nematode formulations...

Application technology aims at minimum loss during transfer of active ingredient, i.e. entomopathogenic nematodes from the mixing tank to the target insect. Several factors affect the ability to deliver infective juveniles in close proximity to the target... 

Since 1994, the nematodes are being sold as commercial product under the trade name Nemaslug (Glen et al. 1994, 1996) prepared by MicroBio Ltd. (now Becker Underwood) and now the sale of this biological molluscicide has increased to many other European countries like France, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Italy and Ireland. However, the shelf life of this product is very less when compared to other entomopathogenic nematodes such as Steinernema sp. or Heterorhabditis sp. (Ester and Wilson 2005). 

Ali SS, Ahmad R, Hussain MA, Parvez R. (2005b) Pest management in pulses through entomopathogenic nematodes. Indian Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur, p 19. 

Bhatnagar A, Bareth SS. Effect of soil moisture on the survival of entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar 1976, in sandy loam soil. Pest Manag Econ Zool. 2003 11 1-6. 

Boemare NE, Akhurst RJ, Mourant RG. DNA relatedness between Xenorhabdus spp. (Enterobacteriaceae), symbiotic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes, and a proposal to transfer Xenorhabdus luminescens to a new genus, Photorhabdus gen. nov. Int J Syst Bact. 1993 43 249-255. 

Campbell JF, Gaugler R. Inter-specific variation in entomopathogenic nematodes foraging strategy Dichotomy or variation along a continuum. Fund Appl Nematol. 1997 20 393-398. 

Campbell JF, Gaugler R. Nictation behaviour and its ecological implications in the host search strategies of entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinemematidae). Behavior. 1993 126 155-169. 

Campbell LR, Gaugler R. Mechanisms for exsheathment of entomopathogenic nematodes. Int J Parasitol. 1991a 21 219-224. 

Campbell LR, Gaugler R. Role of the sheath in desiccation tolerance of two entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematol. 1991b 37 324-332. 

Campos-Herrera R, Escuer M, Labrador S, Robertson L, Barrios LA, Gutierrez C. Distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes from La Rioja (Northern Spain). J Inver Path. 2007 95 125-139. 

Cannayane I, Banu JG, Subramaniam S, Rajavel DS. Preliminary evaluation of the entomopathogenic nematodes on the root grub, Basilepta fulvicome in cardamom. Int J Nematol. 2007 37 213-214. 

Chen-ShuLong, Li-XiuHua, Yan-AiHua, Spiridonov SE, Moens M. (2006) A new entomopathogenic nematode Steinemema hebeiense sp. n. (Rhabditida Steinemematidae), from North China. Nematol 8 563-574. 

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