Lead-acid battery technological processes

These innovations in battery design and technology are stiU in the process of development and testing. They are not yet commercially available. But it can be expected that they will mark the beginning of the third phase in the development of the lead—acid battery technology. 

Processing Technology for Lead Acid Battery Paste, Maschinenfabrik Gustav Eirich, Post-fach 1160, D-74732 Hardheim, Germany H.J. Vogel, Power Sources, 1994, 48, 71. 

Lead-acid batteries received a high score by virtue of being a commercial product with an established recycling infrastructure. Nickel/metal hydride and nickel/cadmium are also widely available commercially and are routinely recycled. Zinc batteries are sold in large quantities and little or no hazardous waste and pollutants are produced by processing. Most of the battery technologies farther down the list are ranked lower because the batteries are not commercial products and recycling processes are not developed any further than a bench scale. In the case of sodium/sulflir batteries, the market outlook for recovered products is unfavorable. 

DSC and TG were used for quality control of the materials and the technological processes during battery manufacture, Matrakova and Pavlov presented the results of an investigation on lead-acid battery pastes and active materials, aimed to estimate the efficiency of the two thermal methods for the analysis and the control of the processes taking place during battery production and operation [190]. 

Application of lead—acid batteries was limited because of tbe slow process of manufacture of the electrodes and their low capacity. In the late 1870s there was an acute need of new technology for lead—acid manufacture. 

New Materials and New Technological Processes Are Adopted in the Production of Lead—Acid Batteries... 

Any change in materials or technological processes used for lead—acid battery manufacture was associated with certain problems in battery operation. The research efforts aimed at resolving these problems resulted in disclosing new structures, processes and properties of lead—acid batteries. This comes to demonstrate that the lead—acid hattery is a fairly complex system whose proper and effective functioning cannot he reduced to electrochemical reactions only. 

The classical technological scheme for the manufacture of flat-plate lead—acid batteries is presented in Fig. 2.52. This technological process is basically used for the production of SLI, traction and stationary batteries. The process involves the following main production stages ... 

Disclosure of the mechanisms of electrochemical and chemical processes, which take place in the production technology of plates (electrodes) of lead-acid batteries. These studies were important both for theory and practice. 

The CX breaker (1) for the separation of the components of spent lead acid batteries and the thermal recovery of metallic lead is well known and is considered state of the art technology in this field. More than 20 plants are operating all over the world and requests for the construction of new ones are frequently received. The Engitec CX process is a mature technology that provides answers to the two most important problems related to spent lead acid batteries ... 

The active material comprises the substances that constitute the charge-discharge reaction. In the positive electrode of lead-acid batteries, the active material in the charged state is lead dioxide (PbOj), which is converted into lead sulfate (PbS04) when the electrode is discharged. The active material is the most essential part of a battery, and battery technology has to aim at optimum constitution and performance for the expected application. This does not only concern the chemical composition but also the physical structure and its stability. Specialized methods have been developed to fulfill these requirements, and the primary products as well as the manufacturing process are usually specified by the individual battery manufacturer. 

Industry and Business. Because of the widespread need for electrochemical cells and batteries, companies manufacturing them have devoted extensive human and financial resources to the research, development, and production of a variety of batteries. Some companies, such as Exide Technologies, have emphasized lead-acid batteries, whereas General Electric, whose corporate interest in batteries goes back to its founder, Thomas Alva Edison, has made fuel cells a significant part of its diversified line of products. Some businesses, such as Alcoa, the world s leading producer of aluminum, were based on the discovery of a highly efficient electrolytic process, which led to a dramatic decrease in the cost of aluminum and, in turn, to its widespread use (it is second only to steel as a construction metal). 

Koch, M and Niklas, H, 1989. Processing of lead-acid-battery scrap The Varta process, in Proceed/ngi Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS) Symposium on Productivity and Technology in the Metallurgical Industries, Cologne, September, pp 495-500 (The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS) ... 

Despite the recent rapid development of secondary lithium ion/lithium polymer batteries, advanced technology development, designs, and fabrication processes are still being developed and introduced into the lead-acid battery industry. Table 1.1 shows the major advantages and disadvantages of lead-acid batteries. 

For application directly to battery technology, the three modes of mass transport have meaningful significance. Convective and stirring processes can be employed to provide a flow of electroactive species to reaction sites. Examples of the utilization of stirring and flow processes in batteries are the circulating zinc/air system, the vibrating zinc electrode, and the zinc-chlorine hydrate battery. In some types of advanced lead-acid batteries, circulation of acid is provided to improve utilization of the active materials in the battery plates. 

Advances in the past few decades have improved car battery technology immensely. Many lead batteries currently manufactured are labeled as maintenance free. This refers to the fact that the acid level in them does not have to be checked. The addition of water to a lead battery is necessary because the charging process causes water to undergo electrolysis. This process creates... 

Another conventional battery technology that has been considered for EVs is Ni/Cd. Although capable of somewhat better performance than lead-acid in some respects, this battery is also more costly and does not equal the performance levels possible with advanced battery systems. It is unlikely to see widespread use in EV applications in the U.S. although there are reported to be more than 10,000 EVs using Ni/Cd batteries presently on the road in Europe [23]. Because of the toxicity of cadmium, which precludes disposal, and the value of the nickel, there are well-developed processes for recycling of Ni/Cd batteries. Most of the facilities in Europe are dedicated Ni/Cd battery recycling plants. 

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