Iron and Lead

Concrete is commonly used, augmented by iron and lead for gamma rays and water for fast neutrons. 

Tube-side headers for water sei vice are made in a wide variety of materials carbon steel, copper alloy, cast iron, and lead-hned or plastic-lined or specially painted carbon steel. 

Magnetite anodes exhibit a relatively low consumption rate when compared with other anode materials, namely graphite, silicon iron and lead and can be used in seawater, fresh water and soils. This low consumption rate enables a light-weight anode construction to be utilised. For example, the anode described by Linder is 800 mm in length 60 mm in diameter, 10 mm wall thickness and 6 kg in weight. 

Carrion N, De Behzo ZA, Moreno B, Fernandez EJ, Flores D (1988) Determination of copper, chromium, iron and lead in pine needles by electrothermal atomisation spectrometry with slurry sample introduction. J Anal At Spectrom 3 479-483. 

The transition of empirical alchemy in 18th century Europe to scientific chemistry allowed the discovery of more and more new elements through the thirst for knowledge, intuition, patience, and even luck. Known materials such as gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead were "suspected" to be elements relatively early. Despite all the best efforts, these materials could not be broken down into further components, and hence their being elements was consistent with the then generally recognized definition of John Dalton, which was also staunchly supported by Antoine de Lavoisier. 

Lipman CB, Burgess PS (1914) The effects of copper, zinc, iron and lead salts on ammonification and nitrification in soils. University of California Publications in Agricultural Science 1 127-139... 

Outokumpu [Named after a hill in Finland, near Kuusjarvi] A flash-smelting process for sulfide ores, ft is an energy-efficient process (also called an autogenous process), using mainly the heat of combustion of the contained sulfur to sulfur dioxide, rather than ary external source of heat. Developed R Bryk and J. Ryselin at the Haijavalta works of Outokumpu Oy, Finland, in 1946. Used mainly for copper ores, but also for nickel, iron, and lead by 1988, 40 plants were using the process worldwide. 

Despite the good performance characteristics of HMTD, it had several significant faults. As mentioned earlier, the peroxide bond is very reactive. This made HMTD incompatible with most metals. It actively attacked aluminum, tin, zinc, brass, copper, iron, and lead. HMTD was also very unstable when stored, exhibiting tremendous weight loss over short periods of time. In the end, it was judged both too reactive and too thermally unstable for any practical usage. It fell into obscurity in the explosives community in the early 1950s. 

Results For the St. Louis data, the target transformation analysis results for the fine fraction without July Uth and 5th are given in table 6. The presence of a motor vehicle source, a sulfur source, a soil or flyash source, a titanium source, and a zinc source are indicated. The sulfur, titanium and zinc factors were determined from the simple initial test vectors for those elements. The concentration of sulfur was not related to any other elements and represents a secondary sulfate aerosol resulting from the conversion of primary sulfur oxide emissions. Titanium was found to be associated with sulfur, calcium, iron, and barium. Rheingrover ( jt) identified the source of titanium as a paint-pigment factory located to the south of station 112. The zinc factor, associated with the elements chlorine, potassium, iron and lead, is attributed to refuse incinerator emissions. This factor could also represent particles from zinc and/or lead smelters, though a high chlorine concentration is usually associated with particles from refuse incinerators ( ). The sulfur concentration in the refined sulfate factor is consistent with that of ammonium sulfate. The calculated lead concentration in the motor vehicle factor of ten percent and a lead to bromine ratio of about 0.28 are typical of values reported in the literature (25). The concentration of lead in... 

The refined source profiles that best reproduced the coarse fraction are listed in table 7. The calculated profiles of the two crustal components follow those of Mason ( ), though the calcium concentration of 20 in the limestone factor is less than the reported value. The paint pigment profile strongly resembles that calculated for the fine-fraction data. The only major difference is that unlike the fine fraction, the coarse-fraction profile does not associate barium with the paint-pigment factor. The calculated sulfur concentration in the coarse-fraction sulfate factor is much less than that in the fine-fraction and there are sizable concentrations of elements such as aluminum, iron, and lead not found in the fine-fraction profile. The origin of this factor is not clear although as described earlier a possible explanation is that a small part of the sulfate particles in the fine fraction ended up in the coarse samples. 

In the missing portion of the second book of Esdras which the British Orientalist Robert L. Bensly discovered at Amiens and published in 1875, the angel says (in speaking to Ezra of the earth), You produce gold and silver and copper and also iron and lead and clay. But silver is more abundant than gold, and copper than silver, and iron than copper, lead than iron, and clay than lead (II Esdras 7, 55-6) (37). 

When he discusses the chemical aspects of metals, Boerhaave resorts to alchemical descriptions, which still utilize the mercury-sulphur conception that had largely been abandoned even if not refuted nor completely superceded. There are only six simple metals, he says, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and lead ... 

Geld, iron, and lead were procured in the South, and soma tin in the North of Spain but the gold was probably of small amount, and silver was the chief mineral wealth of the country. Of this mineral Pliky says it was found in all tho Roman provinces, but the best in Spain, and that in a barren soil, even in the... 

Muffle Furnaces or Retorts of Graphite or Silicon Carbide. The metal is fed into the furnace either batchwise as a solid or continuously as a liquid. The heat of vaporization is supplied by heating the outside of the retort with a burner. The nonvolatile residues (iron and lead in the case of dross from smelting) accumulate in the retort and must be removed at intervals. This is facilitated by tipping the retorts. 

Sulphuric acid (sp. gr 1.84) and oleum (20-25%) should be virtually free from lead sulphate which is liable to be present in old installations constructed of lead, and also from sulphates of iron, as these substances hinder the separation of nitroglycerine and acid. Since such acid is not always available storage of sulphuric add and oleum in spedal cast iron tanks is recommended in order to allow impurities to settle. Acid is drawn from the upper part of the tank so that the slime composed of iron and lead sulphates remains on the bottom. Similarly, the mixed acid is stored in tanks so designed that the predpitate can collect on the bottom. 

Figure 8. Bivariate plot of iron and lead log base-10 ppm oxide concentrations showing subgroup variation within the mineral and organic-paint groups. Ellipses represent 90% confidence interval for group membership. Unassigned specimens are not shown.

Williams, A.G.B., Scheckel, K.G., Tolaymat, T. and Impellitteri, C.A. (2006) Mineralogy and characterization of arsenic, iron, and lead in a mine waste-derived fertilizer. Environmental Science and Technology, 40(16), 4874-79. 

An explosive variety (or compound) of arsenic was produced as a surface layer on the exposed iron surfaces of a corroded lead-lined vessel which contained 35% sulfuric acid with a high arsenic content. It exploded on friction or ignition, and contained no hydrogen, but variable small amount of iron and lead. It may have been analogous to explosive antimony. 

Inorganic pigments are found in the earth. Iron and lead oxides provide earth colors. Copper calcium silicate and cobalt stannate provide blues. The colors burnt sienna and burnt umber come from iron oxides. Green pigments come from chromic oxide, calcinated cobalt, and zinc and aluminum oxides. Red pigments come from cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and barium sulfate. All these chemical compounds come from the earth. 

When metals are produced by any method, the extent to which they must be purified depends on the applications intended. For many purposes, the crude metals containing appreciable quantities of impurities may be employed for other applications, extensive refining may be necessary. Since this problem involves so many variables, it seems sufficient merely to indicate the general character of the refining processes most commonly utilized. Purification by electrolysis has already been discussed, and this is unquestionably one of the most important and useful methods. Some metals, notably iron and lead, may be purified by oxidation of the impurities by gaseous oxygen (from air), followed by the removal of the oxidized impurities. Still other metals, such as mercury and zinc, are sufficiently volatile that they may be purified by distillation. 

FIGURE 22 The structure of PrgFeuPb. Praseodymium, iron, and lead atoms are drawn as medium gray, black filled, and open circles, respectively. The layers of edge-sharing PbPrio polyhedra are separated by the iron cluster units. For details see text. 

The process operated successfully in the plant. More than 98% of the americium was recovered from the cation exchange column as an acidic nitrate solution. Substantial quantities of sodium, iron, nickel, sulfate, and phosphate were removed. Decontamination from these impurities was satisfactory, but almost all the chromium and small amounts of nickel, iron, and lead remained. 

How well founded was this belief became public on August 6, 1945, when an atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. To be sure, the alchemists had not been looking for a weapon which could destroy civilization. They were seeking a philosopher s stone which could turn the cheaper metals such as iron and lead into the more precious gold, and an elixir of life which would retard old age. To the social-minded scientist the conquest of nuclear energy means a modern philosopher s stone which, if used wisely, could improve the health and wellbeing of tens of millions of people all over the world. 

Chloride Determine as directed in the Chloride Limit Test under Chloride and Sulfate Limit Tests, Appendix IIIB, using the following as the sample Transfer a volume of sample equivalent to 5 g of Sulfuric Acid into about 25 mL of water contained in a 50-mL volumetric flask, cool, and dilute to volume with water. (Retain the unused portion for the Iron and Lead tests.) Any turbidity produced by 4 mL of this solution (400-mg sample) does not exceed that shown in a control containing 20 p,g of chloride (Cl) ion. 

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