Fossil fuel equivalents

The use and effective costs of various energy alternatives are shown in Table 2. Use or internal costs include production, transportation, and distribution. Effective costs take into account the use costs estimated external costs, which include costs associated with damage to the environment caused by utili2ation of various fossil fuels and fuel utili2ation efficiencies, ie, the efficiency of converting fuels into mechanical, electrical, or thermal energy. The effective costs are expressed as /GJ of fossil fuel equivalent (15). The overall equation for the effective cost is... 

The vector is used to express the genes of the sox operon (soxA, soxB, and soxC) from the constitutive promoter and so, Rhodococcus, Gordona, and Nocardia may be transformed with this vector and used in BDS of fossil fuels. Equivalent patents GB0311395D, ITMI20021217. 

The calculation of fossil fuel equivalents for electric energy was based on a generation efficiency of 34% (10,000 Btu of fossil fuel energy required to generate 1 kwh of electricity.)... 

Estimated per-hale energy consumed Is expressed In kwh of fossil fuel equivalents. 

Table IV. Energy and fossil fuel equivalents (FEE) required in the production of PS versus PHA...

It has been shown in tests that PLA does not cause irritation to the mammalian body (NatureWorks, 2011k). When 1 million diapers are converted from PET and polypropylene to PLA, it can help to save fossil fuel equivalent to 1,000 gallons of gas/greenhouse gas emissions or driving a car for 12,800 miles... 

The citizens of the world bum the fossil fuel equivalent of 7 X 10 " kg of petroleum per year. Assume that all of this petroleum is in the form of octane (CgHjg) and calculate how much CO2 (in kg) is produced by world fossil fuel combustion per year. (Hint Begin by writing a balanced equation for the combustion of octane.) If the atmosphere currently contains approximately 3 X lO kg of CO2, how long will it take for the world s fossil fuel combustion to double the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide ... 

It has also been estimated that at the average photosynthetic efficiency, growing trees would reduce 2.7 kg of CO per square meter. On the other hand, biofuels produced with -0.1% efficiency per square meter would replace the fossil fuel equivalent to only -0.3 kg of CO. Reforestation of the land used to grow plants for biofuels is therefore a far more effective way of reducing CO in the atmosphere. 

X 10 Btu/short ton), the solar energy trapped in 17.9 x 10 t of biomass, or about 8 x 10 t of biomass carbon, would be equivalent to the world s fossil fuel consumption in 1990 of 286 x 10 J. It is estimated that 77 x 10 t of carbon, or 171 x 10 t of biomass equivalent, most of it wild and not controlled, is fixed on the earth each year. Biomass should therefore be considered as a raw material for conversion to large suppHes of renewable substitute fossil fuels. Under controlled conditions dedicated biomass crops could be grown specifically for energy appHcations. 

A projection of biomass energy consumption in the United States for the years 2000, 2010, 2020, and 2030 is shown in Table 6 by end use sector (12). This analysis is based on a National Premiums Scenario which assumes that specific market incentives are appHed to aU. new renewable energy technology deployment. The scenario depends on the enactment of federal legislation equivalent to a fossil fuel consumption tax. Any incentives over and above those in place (ca 1992) for use of renewable energy will have a significant impact on biomass energy consumption. 

Nonprocess Refers to industries that do not comprise a part of the CPI as their primary function, but which use comparable or equivalent complex equipment systems to perform their function, such as nuclear power plants, fossil fuel plants, and offshore oil rigs. 

All fossil fuels are considered unsustainable because someday they will reach a point of depletion when it becomes uneconomic to produce. Petroleum is the least sustainable because it is the most finite fossil fuel. Although levels of production are expected to begin declining no later than 2030 (U.S. production peaked in 1970), the U.S. and world resei ves could be further expanded by technological advances that continue to improve discoveiy rates and individual well productivity. The extraction of oils found in shales (exceeds three trillion barrels of oil equivalent worldwide) and sands (resei ves of at least two trillion barrels worldwide) could also significantly increase reserves. The reserves of natural gas are comparable to that of oil, but natural gas is considered a more sustainable resource since consumption rates are lower and it burns cleaner than petroleum products (more environmentally sustainable). 

The world energy consumption for industrial and human activities has burned more than 10 billion tons of fossil fuels per year (in coal equivalent). This is the major reason for increase CO2 emission (Fig. 4). 

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