Fusarium toxin

Desjardins AE and Proctor R H (2001), Biochemistry and genetics of Fusarium toxins , in Summerell B A, Leslie J F, Backhouse D, Bryden W L and Burgess L W, Fusarium -Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium, APS Press, American Phytolpathological Society, St. Paul, USA, 50-69. 

EC (European Commission) (2005c), Commission directive 2005/38/EC of 6 June 2005 laying down the sampling methods and the methods of analysis for the official control of the levels of Fusarium toxins in foodstuffs , Official J. Europ. Union, L143, 18-26. 

June 2005 amending regulation (EC) No 466/2001 as regards Fusarium toxins , Official J. Europ. Union, L143, 3-8. 

Doohan FM, Parry DW, Jenkinson P, Nicholson P (1998) The use of species-specific PCR-based assays to analyse Fusarium ear blight of wheat. Plant Pathol 47 197-205 Doohan FM, Brennan J, Cooke BM (2003) Influence of climatic factors on Fusarium species pathogenic to cereals. Eur J Plant Pathol 109 755-768 Eppley RM, Stoloff L, Trucksess MW, Chung CW (1974) Survey of corn for fusarium toxins. J Assoc Anal Chem 57 632-635... 

Malekinejad H, Schoevers EJ, Daemen IJ, Zijlstra C, Colenbrander B, Fink-Gremmels F, Roelen BAJ (2007) Exposure of oocytes to the Fusarium toxins zearalenone and deoxynivalenol causes aneuploidy and abnormal embryo development in pigs. Biol Reprod 77 840-847 Maragos CM, Appell MD (2007) Capillary electrophoresis of the mycotoxin zearalenone using cyclodextrin-enhanced fluorescence. J Chromatogr A 1143 252-257... 

Miller, J.O., Young, I.C. and Trenholm, H.L., Fusarium toxins in field corn. I. Parameters associated with fungal growth and production of deoxynivaneol and other mycotoxins. Can. J. Bot., 61, 3080, 1983. 

As in aflatoxin producers, also producers of Fusarium toxins have been detected by PCR assay which were based on primers hybridizing to genes... 

Lisker, N. and Lillehoj, E. B. "Prevention of mycotoxin contamination (principally aflatoxins and Fusarium toxins) at the preharvest stage" In Mycotojdns and Animal Foods Smith, J. E. and Henderson, R. S., Eds. CRC Press Baton Rouge, LA, 1991, pp. 689-719. 

Schollenberger, M., Suchy, S., Jara, H.T., Drochner, W. and Mueller, H.M. 1999. A survey of Fusarium toxins in cereal-based foods marketed in an area of southwest Germany. Mycopathologia 147 49-57. 

Contamination occurs primarily in wheat, barley, rye, and maize. Type A trichothecenes include mainly T-2 toxin, HT-2, and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) mycotoxins of the group B include mainly 4-deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly known as vomitoxin, and nivalenol (NIV). Toxic effects include nausea, vomiting, visual disorder, vertigo, throat irritation, and feed refusal in farm animals. The most toxic is T-2, followed by DAS and NIV, with DON being the least toxic in acute toxicity studies but the most widespread in grains worldwide and therefore the most studied. Issues related to chemical and physical data, occurrence, toxicity, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of trichothecenes are reviewed in WHO (89) and IARC (34). Physicochemical data for some selected Fusarium toxins is given by Sydenham et al. (90). The molecular structures of the main trichothecenes are shown in Fig. 9. 

EW Sydenham, PG Thiel, R Vleggar. Physicochemical data for some selected fusarium toxins. J AOAC Int 79 1365-1379, 1996. 

Shepherd [30] has compiled data on HPLC for the determination of the following mycotoxins in food aflatoxins, ochrotoxins, fusarium toxins, patulin and engot alkaloids. 

A number of emerging methods such as fluorescence polarization immunoassays, dipsticks, or even newer methods such as biosensors have been used for rapid screening of mycotoxin (ochratoxin A and Fusarium toxins—funionisms (FBs), moniliformin (MON), zearalenone (ZON), and type-A and -B trichothecenes in foods, fodders, blood, urea, and tissues of pigs after slaughter) (Curtui et al. 2001 Krska et al., 2007). 

Krska, R., Welzig, E., and Boudra, H. 2007. Analysis of Fusarium toxins in feed. Animal Feed Sci Technol 137(3—4) 241 —264. 

Proctor RH Fusarium toxins Trichothecenes and Fumonisins in Cary JW, Linz JE, Bhatnagar D (eds) Microbial Foodbome Diseases Mechanism of pathogenesis and toxin synthesis. Lancaster, Technomic Publishing 2000, pp 363—381. 

Fusarium toxins) at the preharvest stage in Smith JE, Henderson RS (eds) Mycotoxins and Animal Foods. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1991, pp 689-719. 

Detection methods for T-2 toxin and other Fusarium toxins have been recently reviewed (Krska et al., 2007 Ler et al., 2006). Trichothecene analysis can be done by screening methods such as thin layer chromatography (TLC) and ELISA or analytical methods such as gas chromatography (GC) and high performance hquid chromatography (HPLC). GC instrumentation has been the most frequently used method for experimental work with trichothecenes. Newer methodologies, such as GC-MS and LC-MS, have an excellent lowest level of detection (LOD) of 5 ng/g for T-2 toxin in cereals and food, and wheat flour respectively (Ler et al., 2006). Improved sensitivity for... 

Goyarts, T., Danicke, S. (2006). Bioavailability of the Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol (DON) ftom naturally contaminated wheat for the pig. Toxicol. Lett. 163 171-82. 

Mirocha, C.J., Pawlosky, R.A., Chetteqee, K., Watson, S., Hayes, A.W. (1983). Analysis for Fusarium toxins in various samples implicated in biological warfare in southeast Asia. J. Assoc. Off Anal. Chem. 66 485-99. 

Danishefsky and coworkers have demonstrated the conversion of lactones to carbocycles by the 3,3-sigmatropic shift of silylketene acetals. Jq the total synthesis of the Fusarium toxin equisetin, for example, keto lactone (138) was converted to its bissilyl derivative (139) by reaction with 2 equiv. of LDA and an excess of TMS-Cl. In situ thermolysis of ketene acetal (1 ) led to a very smooth transformation into ester (140), which was carried on to equisetin (Scheme 26). This methodology was also applied by Schreiber and Smith in the preparation of the cyclohexyl moiety of the immunosuppressive agent FK-506. Ireland-Claisen rearrangement of silylketene acetal (142), prepared by treatment with TBDMS-OTf and triethylamine at low temperature, provided, after hydrolysis of the silyl ester, the carboxylic acid (143) in 71% overall yield (Scheme 27). The strict translation of configuration via a boatlike transition state is typical for this permutation. 

Mycotoxin contamination of foods may cause considerable economic losses. On a global perspective, aflatoxins in tree nuts, dry fruits, and spices, Fusarium toxins in cereals (particularly maize, wheat, and barley), and ochratoxin A in cereals and coffee are of major importance (Bhat and Vasanthi, 1999). Regional problems also may arise from mycotoxins in fruits such as patulin in apples, ochratoxin A in grapes and dried vine fruits, or aflatoxins in different dried fruits. 

Regnlations for aflatoxines and ochratoxin A (EC 466/2001), maximnm level for Fusarium toxins in selected foodstuffs were recently set in Enropean Commission Regnlation 856/2005 which applied from 1 Jnly 2006 (Rndolf and Alexandra 2007). 

Kalantary makes a general outline on mycotoxins and fusarium toxins as environmental toxicants, their mycotoxicosis, the historical background of trichothecene mycotoxins and toxicological aspects. 

In this article the general outline on mycotoxins and fusarium toxins as environmental toxicants their mycotoxicosis, the historical backgrounds of trichothecene mycotoxins chemistry and toxicological aspects were described. In order to protect the environment as well as human from these toxins and also to find a potential antidote for these toxins it is worthy to work in this area of research. 

A similar strategy has been used in the synthesis of the fusarium toxin equisetin535. 

---