Functional electrical stimulation

McNeal DR (1977) 2000 Years of Electrical Stimulation. In Hambrecht FT, Reswick JB. (eds) Functional Electrical Stimulation. Applications in Neural Prostheses. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, p 3... 

While electrodes may be integrated as detectors, another possibility is to use the electrodes to stimulate muscles. Electrodes for functional electrical stimulation have been integrated into fabrics to provide actuation stimuli to muscles of the spinal cord of injured and stroke subjects in order to generate or improve lost motor function. 

Kirstein, T., Lawrence, M., Troster, G., 2003. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) with smart textile electrodes. In International Workshop on a New Generation Of Wearable Systems for E-health, Pisa, Italy. 

The modeling and control of movements in this chapter relates to external control of muscles via so-called functional electrical stimulation. Macroscopic viscoelastic models started from the observation that the process of electrical stimulation transforms the viscoelastic material from a compliant, fluent state into the stiff, viscous state. Levin and Wyman [35] proposed a three-element model— damped and undamped elastic element in series. Hill s work [36] demonstrated that the heat transfer depends upon the type of contraction (isometric, slow contracting, etc). The model includes the force generator, damping and elastic elements. Winters [37] generalized Hill s model in a simple enhancement of the original, which... 

Khang, G. and Zajac, F.E., Paraplegic standing controUed by functional electrical stimulation part I — computer model and control-system design part II —computer simulation studies, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. BME-36 873-893,1989. 

Kobetic, R. and Marsolais, E.B., Synthesis of paraplegic gait with multichannel functional electrical stimulation, IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. TRE-2 66-79,1994. 

Popovid, D., Stein, R.B., et al.. Optimal control of walking with functional electrical stimulation a computer simulation study, IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. TRE-7(1) 69-79,1999. 

Popovid, D., Finite state model of locomotion for functional electrical stimulation systems, Progr. Brain Res. 97 397 07,1993. 

Kostov, A., Andrews, B.J., Popovid, D. et al.. Machine learning in control of functional electrical stimulation (FES) for locomotion, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. BME-42 541-552,1995. 

Development of a Multi-Functional 22-Channel Functional Electrical Stimulator for Paraplegia... 

An Implantable Bionic Network of Injectable Neural Prosthetic Devices The Future Platform for Functional Electrical Stimulation and Sensing to Restore Movement and Sensation... 

Functional electrical stimulation has pertained mostly to the restoration of upper and lower hmb function (after injury and ischemia), bowel, bladder and sexual function, and respiratory function. This field, represented by the International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society, also is interested in auditory and visual prostheses, and has — in contrast to the two other societies — a distinctly engineering bias, limited as it has been to electrical stimulation. 

Peckham, P.H., J.T. Mortimer, and E.B. Marsolais, Controlled prehension and release in the C5 quadriplegic elicited by functional electrical stimulation of the paralyzed forearm musculature. Ann. Biomed. Eng, 1980,8 369-388. 

Durfee, W.K. and D.J. DiLorenzo. Linear and nonlinear approaches to control of single joint motion by functional electrical stimulation, in Proceedings of the 1990 American Control Conference, 1990. 

Graupe, D. and K.H. Kohn, Functional Electrical Stimulation for Ambulation by Paraplegics. 1994, Malabar, FL Krieger Publishing Co. 

Graupe, D., Kohn, K.H., Basseas, S., and Naccarato, E. (1984), Electromyographic control of functional electric stimulation in selected paraplegics. Orthopedics, 7 1134-1138 Graupe, D. (1989), EMG pattern analysis for patient-responsive control of FES in paraplegics, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 36 711-719. 

Kralj, A, Bajd, T., Turk, R., and Benko, H. (1989), Paraplegic patients standing by functional electrical stimulation. Digest 12th International Conference of Medical Biology Engineering, Jerusalem, Israel. Paper 59.3. 

The authors aim has been to develop a generic functional electrical stimulation (FES) implant for the restoration of functions in spinal cord injured (SCI) paraplegic individuals, the functions or modes of which can be matched to an individual s requirements upright functional mobility, pressure relief and lower extremity exercise, bladder and bowel control [1-6]. In addition, for bladder control, less invasive... 

Kralj, A. and Bajd, T. Functional Electrical Stimulation Standing and Walking After Spinal Cord Injury. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989. 

Davis, R. International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society the development of controlled neural prostheses for functional restoration. Neuromod, 2000 3 1-5. 

Bonaroti, D., Akers, Smith, B.T., Betz, R.R., and Mulcahey, M.f. Comparison of functional electrical stimulation to long leg braces for upright mobility for children with complete thoracic level spinal injuries. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 80 1047-1053,1999. 

Davis, R., Houdayer, T., Andrews, B., and BarriskiU, A. Prolonged closed-loop functional electrical stimulation and andrews ankle-foot orthosis. Artif Organs 1999 23 418 20. 

Davis, R., Patrick, J., and BarriskiU, A. Development of functional electrical stimulators utiUzing cochlear implant technology. Med. Eng. Phys. 2001 23 61-68. 

Schuhnan, J., Mobley, R, Wolfe, J., Voelkel, A., Davis, R., and Arcos, I. An implantable bionic network of injectable neural prosthetic devices the future platform for functional electrical stimulation and sensing to restore movement and sensation. In Biomedical Engineering Fundamentals, Walker, C.F. and DiLorenzo, D.J. (eds). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006, Chapter 34, pp. 34-1-34-18. 

Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a rehabilitation technique for the restoration of lost neurological function, resulting from conditions such as stroke, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, head injuries, and multiple sclerosis. FES utilizes low-level electrical current applied in programmed patterns to different nerves or reflex centers in the central nervous system to produce functional movements. The stimulation may be triggered by a single switch (open-loop) or from sensor(s) or neuronal activity (closed-loop). 

FIGURE 34.3 Functional electrical stimulation and sensor system (FES-BPB). 

Loeb, G.E., Zamin, C.)., Schuhnan, I.H., and Troyk, P.R. Injectable microstimulator for functional electrical stimulation. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 29, NS13-NS19 (1991). 

Here we present technical aspects of the available externally powered orthoses and prostheses that interface directly or indirectly with the human neuro-musculo-skeletal system. We elaborate here two methods for the restoration of movements in humans with paralysis functional activation of paralyzed muscles termed functional electrical stimulation (FES) or functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS or NMS), and parallel application of FES and a mechanical orthosis called hybrid assistive system (HAS). We also describe externally controlled and powered leg and arm/hand prostheses. 

Hybrid assistive systems Combination of a functional electrical stimulation and a mechanical orthosis. Myoelectric (EMG) control Use of voluntary generated myoelectric activity as control signals for an externally controlled and powered assistive system. 

Neural Prosthesis — Assistive systems for replacing or augmenting sensory-rootor fimcion Functional electrical stimulation or Functional neuromuscular stimulation Patterned electrical stimulation of neuromuscular structures dedicated to restore motor functions. 

Popovid, D., Popovid, M. et al., CHnical evaluation of the Belgrade grasping system. Proceedings of 5th Vienna International Workshop on Functional Electrical Stimulation, Vienna, 1998. 

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