Fat substitute

The use of low-calorie fat replacers in foods facilitates reductions in the energy density of the diet. However, since fat confers a number of important quality attributes, it is critical that such foods be highly palatable. When all or part of the fat is replaced, the foods must have comparable rheological and sensory-quality attributes to the original high-fat food. Textural properties are particularly important since fat has a pronounced impact on texture, mouthfeel, and hence eating quality. Therefore, in addition to lowering the calorie density, an acceptable fat substitute must have the appropriate functional properties, such as heat stability, emulsification, aeration, lubricity, spreadability, texture, and mouthfeel (Lukacova and Karovicova, 2003 Silva, 1996). 

Inulin can be used to replace a significant portion of the fat in certain meats (Archer et al., 2004) and traditional squeezable and spreadable food products. As the fat is reduced, the amount of water increases to the detriment of the product s structure. The water binding capacity and melting and rheological properties of inulin in such products, however, allow reducing the fat content from around 80% to 20-40% (Silva, 1996). 

Low-fat squeezable spreads and soft products (e.g., soft cheese, spreadable margarine) require a ratio of plastic stress to maximum stress of 0.95 to 1.0 (Kasapis, 2000). Typically around 15% of a high-dp fraction ( 25 dp) can be used in these products. Interestingly, the physical structure of the material does not develop immediately with formulation but requires 1 to 2 days of storage. 

The functionality of inulin as a fat replacer is due to its effect on water (Silva, 1996). As the inulin concentration in the solution increases, the viscosity of the solution increases (Table 5.7). Initially at 1 to 10% there is a small but gradual increase in viscosity between 11 and 30% there is a more pronounced increase, but without gel formation. Above 30% inulin in water, discrete 

Gel formation inhibits hydrolysis of the inulin (Silva, 1996). At low concentrations (i.e., below gelling), inulin may be hydrolyzed at a pH below 3 and at very high temperature due to the presence of free water. In gel form, inulin is stable in acidic and high temperature conditions due to the lack of available water. 

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Fats in animal tissue Fat substitutes Fatty acid... 

The deleterious effect of some fat substitutes has been demonstrated in cake frosting (27) the result is an unacceptable frosting, filled with air bubbles. In another example, some low fat cheeses are quite acceptable when cold, but when heated result in a product texture that changes to a sticky, gummy mass. Attempts to replace fat must be viewed as a total systems approach (28,29). It is likely that no one material will replace fats in food rather, replacement will consist of mixtures with each ingredient addressing one or more of the roles played by fats in food. 

B. Summerkamp and M. Hesser, Bulking Agents and Fat Substitutes Analysis of a Dynamic Industy, HRA, Inc., Prairie Village, Kans., 1989. 

Substitutes. As of this writing, only one fat substitute, caprenin, a triglyceride composed of capric acid [334-48-5] capryUc acid... 

Many companies have received patents for development of fat substitutes (Table 4) but few have demonstrated strong intentions to move toward regulatory approval. 

The sale of fresh cream as a table item for serving has decreased greatiy siace the 1970s, primarily as a result of changing customer demand based on diet. A variety of cream and fat substitutes are available for spreads, toppiags, whiteners, and cooking (see Dairy substitutes). 

Reduction in semm Hpids can contribute significantly to prevention of atherosclerosis. In 1985 a consensus report indicating that for every 1% reduction in semm cholesterol there is a 2% reduction in adverse effects of coronary heart disease was issued (145). Recommended semm cholesterol concentration was 200 mg/dL for individuals under 30 years of age, and individuals having concentration 240 mg/dL and LDL-cholesterol over 160 mg/dL should undertake dietary modification and possibly pharmacotherapy (146). Whereas the initial step in reducing semm cholesterol is through reduction of dietary cholesterol intake, a number of dmgs are available that can affect semm Hpid profile (see Fat substitutes). The pathway to cholesterol synthesis is shown in Figure 2. 

Dairy products (see Milk and milkproducts) have been staple items of the diet for many centuries, and have long been the target for imitation. The development of nutritional guidelines emphasizing the need to reduce total dietary fat, dietary cholesterol [57-88-5] C2yH4 0, and saturated fatty acids (see Fats and fatty oils Fat substitutes), has increased the interest in imitation dairy foods. However, with the exception of butter and cream the market penetration of dairy substitutes has been limited. 

Microcrystalline ceUuloses ate marketed under the trade name Avicel. The physical characteristics of microcrystalline ceUuloses differ markedly from those of the original ceUulose. The ftee-flowiag powders have particle sizes as smaU as 0.2—10 p.m. Avicel ceUuloses coated with xanthan gum, guar gum, or carboxy-methylceUulose to modify and stabilize their properties are also available. The Avicel products are promoted for use ia low calorie whipped toppiags andiciags andia fat-reduced salad dressiags and frozen desserts (see Fat substitutes). 

In more recent times it is used as a thickener in salad dressings, cosmetics, and sauces as an agent in ice cream that prevents ice crystals from forming and as a fat substitute. In pastry fillings, it prevents syneresis (weeping of the water in the filling), keeping the pastry crust crisp. 

Alginates are used as thickeners in fat substitutes, pet food, stuffed olives, onion rings, low-fat sauces and spreads, and pie fillings. 

Because starches are so good at absorbing water and bulking up, they are important in the texture of many food products. They are often used as fat substitutes. 

Starches are added to processed meats—lunch meats, hot dogs, sausages, etc.—as fillers, binders, moisture retainers, and fat substitutes. They are added to soups, sauces, and gravies as thickeners. They are used in extruded cereals and snacks to hold the shape of the material. 

V. G. Gruzdev, I. K. Getmanskii, and V. G. Germashev, USSR Patent SU 340,686 to All-Union Scientific-Research and Design Institute of Synthetic Fat Substitutes (1972) From Otkrytiya, Izobret., Prom. Obraztsy, Tovarnye Znaki 49(18) 86 (1972). 

Phillips, L.G. and Barbano, D.M., The influence of fat substitutes based on protein and titanium dioxide on the properties of low fat milks, J. Dairy Sci., 80, 2726, 1997. Choi, J.Y. et ah, Photocatalytic antibacterial effect of TiOj film formed on Ti and TiAg. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater., epub., 2006. 

Lactose intolerance is responsible for many cases of acute diarrhea, especially in patients of African descent, Asians, and Native Americans. Foods should be considered as possible causes, especially fat substitutes, dairy products, and products containing non-absorbable carbohydrates. 

DALZEL J M (1998), Ingredients Handbook Fat Substitutes. Leatherhead, Leatherhead Food RA. 

From 1980 through June 2000, the FDA received a total of 34,011 reports describing adverse reactions attributed to food additives, food products, infant formula, medical foods, dietary supplements, and other substances in food. Adverse reaction reports were submitted by consumers, food companies, consumer advocacy groups, and by individuals commenting on various FDA initiatives and proposals. The food additives receiving the most complaints are shown in Table 7.1. The fat substitute olestra accounted for more than half of all complaints received by ARMS. The following six sections pertain to food additives that have generated controversy because of safety concerns. For each additive, pertinent data from the ARMS database are presented. 

Sucrose Esters. Sucrose esters have industrial interest in the area of surfactants, " bleaching boosters, cosmetics, and fat substitutes. Synthetically prepared octa-fatty acid esters of sucrose have similar properties as the normal triglycerides, yet are not degraded by Upases, which entailed their marketing as noncaloric fat substitutes—after being approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration under the name Olestra or Clean . ... 

Food Drug Administration, Olestra and Other Fat Substitutes, 1995 fda.gov/ opacom/backgrounders / olestra.html... 

No-calories fat substitutes, such as sucrose polyesters (Olestra), which are synthesized from sucrose and fatty acid methyl esters, have been widely studied and several snacks fried in this medium are available in the market place. This product has no calories since digestive enzymes are not able to break it down due to structural impairment. A major disadvantage that prevents a wide acceptance of this product is related to the gastrointestinal discomfort that may be caused to some individuals (Dobraszczyk et ah, 2006, p. 104). 

Fat, oil and Solid fats Pork-fat substitute with good taste. 

Tharanathan R.N. (1995). Fat Substitutes - A new approaeh. (pp. 63), CFTRI Annul Conference Proceedings. 

Harkema, Ir.J. (1998). Paselli SA-2 and paselli excel. In Dalzell, J.M. (Ed.). Ingredients Handbook Fat Substitutes, London Leatherhead Food RA, pp. 103-133. 

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