Environmental fossil fuels

Rayon is unique among the mass produced man-made fibers because it is the only one to use a natural polymer (cellulose) directly. Polyesters, nylons, polyolefins, and acryflcs all come indirectly from vegetation they come from the polymerization of monomers obtained from reserves of fossil fuels, which in turn were formed by the incomplete biodegradation of vegetation that grew millions of years ago. The extraction of these nonrenewable reserves and the resulting return to the atmosphere of the carbon dioxide from which they were made is one of the most important environmental issues of current times. CeUulosic fibers therefore have much to recommend them provided that the processes used to make them have minimal environmental impact. 

Another factor is the potential economic benefit that may be realized due to possible future environmental regulations from utilizing both waste and virgin biomass as energy resources. Carbon taxes imposed on the use of fossil fuels in the United States to help reduce undesirable automobile and power plant emissions to the atmosphere would provide additional economic incentives to stimulate development of new biomass energy systems. Certain tax credits and subsidies are already available for commercial use of specific types of biomass energy systems (93). 

C. D. Kalfadehs and E. M. Magee, Evaluation of Pollution Control in Fossil Fuel Conversion Processes, Eiquefaction, Section 1, COED Process, EPA-650/2-74-009e, Environmental Protection Agency, Washiagton, D.C., 1975. 

Nuclear power plants of the future are to be designed and operated with the objective of better fiilfiUing the role as a bulk power producer that, because of reduced vulnerabiUty to severe accidents, should be more broadly accepted and implemented. Use of these plants could help stem the tide of environmental damage caused by air pollution from fossil-fuel combustion products (64). 

Outlook. Total 1991 U.S. ink consumption was estimated at about 86 x 10 kg valued at over 3.0 biUion. The demand is estimated to grow at an average of about 3—4% per year in volume (26). The principal changes expected in the 1990s will continue to be in response to environmental and safety concerns and government regulations. The bulk of printing inks use raw materials based on fossil fuels, such as coal (qv) and petroleum (qv). 

Nuclear Reactors. Nuclear power faciUties account for about 20% of the power generated in the United States. Although no new plants are plaimed in the United States, many other countries, particularly those that would otherwise rely heavily on imported fuel, continue to increase their nuclear plant generation capacity. Many industry observers predict that nuclear power may become more attractive in future years as the price of fossil fuels continues to rise and environmental regulations become more stringent. In addition, advanced passive-safety reactor designs may help allay concerns over potential safety issues. 

Furthermore, it is not tme that other plastics are more environmentally friendly than vinyl. A more recent study compared vinyl to a number of other packaging materials and found that vinyl consumed the least amount of energy, used the lowest level of fossil fuels, consumed the least amount of raw materials, and produced the lowest levels of carbon dioxide of any of the plastics studied (184). In fact, the Norwegian environmental group BeUona has concluded that a generally reduced use of vinyl plastics can lead to a worsening of the environmental situation (185). 

Energy Related Applications. Much research, with regard to the use of cesium in energy related processes, has resulted in Httle commercial apphcation. The heightened awareness of the environmental degradation caused by fossil fuel power stations has resulted in increased research both into efficiency improvements for existing plants and into alternative power generation (qv) methods. 

Acid rain is the popular term for a very complex environmental problem. Over the past 25 years, evidence has accumulated on changes in aquatic life and soil pH in Scandinavia, Canada, and the northeastern United States. Many believe that these changes are caused by acidic deposition traceable to pollutant acid precursors that result from the burning of fossil fuels. Acid rain is only one component of acidic deposition, a more appropriate description of this phenomenon. Acidic deposition is the combined total of wet and dry deposition, with wet acidic deposition being commonly referred to as acid rain. 

The increasing number of atomic reactors used for power generation has been questioned from several environmental points of view. A modern atomic plant, as shown in Fig. 28-3, appears to be relatively pollution free compared to the more familiar fossil fuel-fired plant, which emits carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, hydrocarbons, and fly ash. However, waste and spent-fuel disposal problems may offset the apparent advantages. These problems (along with steam generator leaks) caused the plant shown in Fig. 28-3 to close permanently in 199T. 

Atmospheric particulate emissions can be reduced by choosing cleaner fuels. Natural gas used as fuel emits negligible amounts of particulate matter. Oil-based processes also emit significantly fewer particulates than coal-fired combustion processes. Low-ash fossil fuels contain less noncombustible, ash-forming mineral matter and thus generate lower levels of particulate emissions. Lighter distillate oil-based combustion results in lower levels of particulate emissions than heavier residual oils. However, the choice of fuel is usually influenced by economic as well as environmental considerations. 

The analysis of complex matrices, such as natural products, food products, environmental pollutants and fossil fuels, is today a very important area of separation science. The latest developments in chromatographic techniques have yielded highly efficient systems, used with specific detectors to obtain high selectivity and or sensitivity. 

See also Coal, Production of Coal, Transportation and Storage of Environmental Problems and Energy Use Fossil Fuels. 

Power plant emissions result from the comhustion of fossil fuels such as coal, gas, and oil. These emissions include sulfur dioxide (SO,), nitrogen oxides (NO.,), particulate matter, and hazardous air pollutants, all of which are subject to environmental regulations. Another emission is carbon dioxide (CO,), suspected of being responsible for global warming. 

Since the 1970s, technological advances have solved many environmental problems associated with energy production and consumption, and proven that more energy consumption does not necessarily mean more pollution. The fossil fuel industries are producing and distributing more energy less expensive-... 

---