Environmental analysis, use

R.M. Harrison and S. Raposomanikos, Environmental Analysis using Chromatography Interfaced with Atomic Spectroscopy, Ellis Horwood Series in Analytical Chemistry, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, 1992. 

Environmental Analysis using Chromatography Interfaced with Atomic Spectroscopy, Harrison, R.M., and Rapsomanakis, S., Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1989. Becoming dated, but still a valuable guide to this specialist area. 

Despite the potential for direct aqueous injection of water samples into reverse phase systems, there are very few cases where this is possible due to the low detection levels normally required for environmental analysis. Using direct aqueous injection and coulometric electrochemical detection, the analysis of phenol and chlorophenols and 2-mercaptobenzothiazole have been achieved at trace levels (methods with limits of detection for phenol 0.034 ngp and 0.8 pgl for mercaptobenzothiazole have been achieved). There is a potential for the use of direct aqueous injection for the analysis of phenol in effluents using fluorescence detection which would be expected to detect down to low mg T. Direct aqueous injection has been used in an automated system similar to that shown in Figure 11.1. The trace enrichment cartridge was replaced by a large sample loop (50 pi) and a coulometric electrochemical detector used instead of the UV detector. 

Harrison, R.M. Rapsomanikis, S. (eds) (1989) Environmental analysis using chromatography interfaced with atomic spectroscopy, Ellis Horwood Ltd, Chichester. 

The book edited by Harrison and Rapso-manikis (1989) on environmental analysis using chromatography interfaced with atomic spectroscopy has chapters on basic principles of chromatography and AAS, interfaces between liquid chromatography and AAS and determination of individual elements. The book by Kebbekus and Mitra (1998) contains a chapter devoted to chromatographic methods, a discussion of which is also included in chapters on methods for air, water and solid sample analyses. 

R. Harrison and S. Rapsomanikis (eds.). Environmental Analysis Using Chromatography Interfaced with Atomic Spectroscospy, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1988, p. 189... 

Several review papers have reported on the application of ESI in the analysis of surfactants. Di Corcia reviewed LC-MS methods for the unequivocal identification of isomers, oligomers and homologues of the technical blends of surfactants and their biodegradation intermediates in environmental samples at trace levels with particular attention to ESI and TSP apphcations [40]. Qench et al. [28] described the applications of LC-MS in environmental analysis using the interfaces PBI, TSP, APCI and ESI in use or just coming into use in th early 1990s. 

Environmental Applications Although ion-selective electrodes find use in environmental analysis, their application is not as widespread as in clinical analysis. Standard methods have been developed for the analysis of CN , F , NH3, and in water and wastewater. Except for F , however, other analytical methods are considered superior. By incorporating the ion-selective electrode into a flow cell, the continuous monitoring of wastewater streams and other flow systems is possible. Such applications are limited, however, by the electrode s response to the analyte s activity, rather than its concentration. Considerable interest has been shown in the development of biosensors for the field screening and monitoring of environmental samples for a number of priority pollutants. 

Quantitative analytical methods using FIA have been developed for cationic, anionic, and molecular pollutants in wastewater, fresh waters, groundwaters, and marine waters, several examples of which were described in the previous section. Table 13.2 provides a partial listing of other analytes that have been determined using FIA, many of which are modifications of conventional standard spectropho-tometric and potentiometric methods. An additional advantage of FIA for environmental analysis is its ability to provide for the continuous, in situ monitoring of pollutants in the field. ... 

EPA. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. agency responsible for many methods of analysis used by mass spectrometrists)... 

Because of the large number of samples and repetitive nature of environmental analysis, automation is very important. Autosamplers are used for sample injection with gc and Ic systems, and data analysis is often handled automatically by user-defined macros in the data system. The high demand for the analysis of environmental samples has led to the estabUshment of contract laboratories which are supported purely by profits from the analysis. On-site monitoring of pollutants is also possible using small quadmpole ms systems fitted into mobile laboratories. 

A number of soHd-phase automated immunoassay analyzers have been used for performing immunoassays. Table 5 (96) provides usefiil information on maximum tests that can be mn per hour, as well as the maximum number of analytes per sample. A number of immunoassay methods have been found usefiil for environmental analysis (see AUTOMATED INSTRUMENTATION). 

V. Pichon, F. Chen and M.-C. Hennion, On-line preconcenti ation and liquid cliromato-graphic analysis of phenylurea pesticides in environmental water using a silica-based immunosorbent , Aim/. Chim. Acta 311 429-436 (1995). 

Multidimensional chromatography has important applications in environmental analysis. Environmental samples may be very complex, and the fact that the range of polarity of the components is very wide, and that there are a good many isomers or congeners with similar or identical retention characteristics, does not allow their separation by using just one chromatographic method. 

The main aims in environmental analysis are sensitivity (due to the low concentration of microcontaminants to be determined), selectivity (due to the complexity of the sample) and automation of analysis (to increase the throughput in control analysis). These three aims are achieved by multidimensional chromatography sensitivity is enhanced by large-volume injection techniques combined with peak compression, selectivity is obviously enhanced if one uses two separations with different selectivi-ties instead of one, while on-line techniques reduce the number of manual operations in the analytical procedure. 

The use of multidimensional chromatography in environmental analysis has been reviewed in the literature (1-6). Of the multidimensional systems described in previous chapters, GC-GC liquid chromatography LC-LC and LC-GC, whose applications to environmental analysis will be detailed in this chapter, are the ones most often used in environmental analysis. 

Other multidimensional systems, such as supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC-GC or LC-SFC), will not be described here because, although some applications to environmental analysis have been described (4, 7-9), they have not been very widely used in this field. 

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