Electricity generation statistics

Figure 3.1. Fuel input for electricity generation in the UK, 1990-2003. Source Digest of UK Energy Statistics.

The latest available statistics on electricity supply in the UK pertain to 1993 and show total electricity generated was 323 TWh. This was an increase of 0.5 per cent on the previous year which has been about the annual rate of growth over the period 1989 to 1993. 

Within the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB), the "double contingency" principle is adopted in considering criticality in the CAGR fuel routes. Thus, at least two Independent low-probability events must occur before criticality can be reached. For clearances based on calculations a criterion is adopted that if one such event takes place, the cMculated Keff plus an appropriate allowance for uncertainties should be <0.95. This uncertainty allowance includes a systematic component and a random component, statistics plus data, etc., taken at the three standard deviation levels. Two computer codes are employed, the lattice code WIMS (Ref. 1) for survey work and the Monte Carlo cbcle MONK (Ref. 2) for... 

Average USA cost of electricity generation in 2025 (from ExxonMobil s yearly review of energy statistics and trends, called Energy Outlook A View to 2030, Paris, 2011) (image courtesy of ExxonMobil, Leatherhead, Surrey, UK). 

Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada. 1977-. Statistical Review of Coal in Canada. Ottawa Energy, Mines and Resources Canada. Annually reviews production, consumption, and export statistics of Canadian metallurgical grade bituminous coal and subbituminous coal used for domestic electricity generation. Includes statistics on coal imported into Canada from the United States and South American export markets. 

In Australia, electricity generation from biogas has been increased from 1605 GWh to 3234 GWh from 2000 to 2007 (UN-Statistics-Division, 2010). Wastes from food processing plants, livestock manure, and human sewage are the primary feedstocks for biogas production. Most of the installed capacity is at sewage treatment plants, which are considered highly cost-effective. 

Environmental considerations also were reflected in coal production and consumption statistics, including regional production patterns and economic sector utilization characteristics. Average coal sulfur content, as produced, declined from 2.3% in 1973 to 1.6% in 1980 and 1.3% in 1990. Coal ash content declined similarly, from 13.1% in 1973 to 11.1% in 1980 and 9.9% in 1990. These numbers clearly reflect a trend toward utilization of coal that produces less SO2 and less flyash to capture. Emissions from coal in the 1990s were 14 x 10 t /yr of SO2 and 450 x 10 t /yr of particulates generated by coal combustion at electric utiUties. The total coal combustion emissions from all sources were only slightly higher than the emissions from electric utiUty coal utilization (6). 

The NERC GADS ten-year review report for 1971-1980 on equipment availability presents statistical data sets on the performance of major types of electrical power generating units. Cumulative and unit.-year averages are calculated on such quantities as service hours, available hours, scheduled outage rate, mean time between full forced outages, shutdown because of economic reasons, and probability of outage. The number of start demands and successful starts are included. 

This is best illustrated by the following example for a rural development project. The electrical power demand is shown in Figure 15.21 and was developed from historical data generated from similar developments in other regions. The operating statistics indicated that... 

In the previous Maxwelhan description of X-ray diffraction, the electron number density n(r, t) was considered to be a known function of r,t. In reality, this density is modulated by the laser excitation and is not known a priori. However, it can be determined using methods of statistical mechanics of nonlinear optical processes, similar to those used in time-resolved optical spectroscopy [4]. The laser-generated electric field can be expressed as E(r, t) = Eoo(0 exp(/(qQr ot)), where flo is the optical frequency and q the corresponding wavevector. The calculation can be sketched as follows. 

A domain wall under an external electric field moves in a statistical potential generated by their interaction with the lattice, point defects, dislocations, and neighboring walls. Reversible movement of the wall is regarded as a small displacement around a local minimum. When the driven field is high enough, irreversible jumps above the potential barrier into a neighboring local minimum occur (see Figure 1.23). 

The dependence on nuclear power as a share of total electric power generation. (From Energy Information Administration, Official Energy Statistics, 2004.)... 

The average uninterruptible power supply (ups)/generator/ utility system has an availability of about 3-nines, explained Thomas Ditoro, the project s electrical engineer. The statistical term availability is industry jargon meaning the fraction of time the system is available for use.8 A system available 99.9 percent of the time is a 3-nines system, a system with 99.9999 percent availability is a 6-nines system, and so forth. The most redundant ups can achieve an availability of 4-nines. The fuel cell system at First National Bank of Omaha has a calculated availability of 6- to 7-nines. ... 

Human-made sources cover a wide spectrum of chemical and physical activities and are the major contributors to urban air pollution. Air pollutants in the United States pour out from over 10 million vehicles, the refuse of approximately 300 million people, the generation of billions of kilowatts of electricity, and the production of innumerable products demanded by everyday living. Hundreds of millions of tons of air pollutants are generated annually in the United States alone. The six pollutants identified in the Clean Air Act are shown in Table 22-14. Annual emission statistics for these six pollutants are considered major indicators of the U.S. air quality. During the 1970 to 2003 period, the total emissions of the six pollutants declined by 51 percent, while at the same time the gross domestic product increased By 176 percent, the population by 39 percent, and energy consumption by 45 percent. Total emissions in the United States are summarized by source category for the year 1998 in Table 22-15. 

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