Earlier research and development

In the early 1980s Kaiser Aluminum investigated the use of titanium di-boride as a wettable cathode material for Hall-Heroult cells [47]. Similar investigations by Reynolds Metals Co. continued until that company s recent merger with Alcoa [107]. The Reynolds work, and earlier research and development by Martin Marietta Aluminum [108], involved TiB2-C composites. Approaches to the... 

Comprehensive examinations of the structures of many natural products and their chemical compositions to further industrial utilization of annually renewable resources have been reported. Earlier research and development work can be extended to yield new industrial products, particularly in modifying the properties of natural products to give currently desired properties, as reported in this symposium. A classification of important structures to be considered is outlined. 

At a much earlier stage in the research and development cycle, fluidized-bed processes use porous sorbents containing copper oxide (82), cerium oxide (83), and other metal oxides (84). 

From these definitions one may corroborate the intention of HTS in chemistry and materials science. The total speed-up factor of this part of the R D (Research and Development) process, as stated earlier, is between 5 and 50, but contrary to most of the pharma applications true (semi-) quantitative answers will result. As a result, this approach is essentially applicable in any segment of R D. On the other hand, this approach requires methods of experimentation that have almost the same if not the same accuracy as in the traditional one-experiment-at-the time approach. This is key as (i) in process optimisation accuracy is key and (ii) in research, also in academic research, accuracy is important as some polymer properties do not span a wide range of values (e.g., the elastic modulus of amorphous polymers) or may depend critically on molecular weight distribution or molecular order. 

The development of an adequate mathematical model representing a physical or chemical system is the object of a considerable effort in research and development activities. A technique has been formalized by Box and Hunter (B14) whereby the functional form of reaction-rate models may be exploited to lead the experimenter to an adequate representation of a given set of kinetic data. The procedure utilizes an analysis of the residuals of a diagnostic parameter to lead to an adequate model with a minimum number of parameters. The procedure is used in the building of a model representing the data rather than the postulation of a large number of possible models and the subsequent selection of one of these, as has been considered earlier. That is, the residual analysis of intrinsic parameters, such as Cx and C2, will not only indicate the inadequacy of a proposed model (if it exists) but also will indicate how the model might be modified to yield a more satisfactory theoretical model. 

So far there has been little research and development work on dust collection systems which are self cleaning and can be cheaply installed in livestock buildings. The papers suggest that improved livestock environment by dust removal can have an economic advantage in terms of earlier marketing of pigs. 

That this was known in industry at least 15 years earlier is one of the unfortunate discrepancies between academic research and commercial industrial research and development. Not all that is known is necessarily published. This realization subsequently lead to the development of both solid phase and gas phase linear driving force models that each provide very good representations of measured data without the excess labor involved with the diffusion-based models. For trace systems there are quite a few analytical solutions that are available and quite tractable for both design work and the analysis of adsorption column performance. 

The foregoing conclusions arising from earlier work (6b,10, 57,63-85) offer fruitful directions for a continuing program of research and development involving a wide variety of membrane materials, and reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration systems. 

This method of calculation is based on the use of animal toxicity data to determine limits. As mentioned earlier, this method is particularly suited for determining limits for materials that are not used medically. This method is based upon the concepts of acceptable daily intake (ADI) and no observed effect level (NOEL) developed by scientists in the Environmental Protection Agency [7], the U.S. Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development Laboratory [8], and the toxicology department at Abbott Laboratories [9], This method has also been recently used to calculate the limits of organic solvent residues allowed in APIs [10]. 

DOE has defined low-level waste as in Clause (A) above (DOE, 1988c 1999c). In the earlier definition (DOE, 1988c), test specimens of fissionable material irradiated for purposes of research and development could be classified as low-level waste, provided the concentration of long-lived, alpha-emitting transuranium radionuclides was... 

The principal issue in the drug discovery process is the high failure rate in the clinical trials, mainly due to liabilities related to poor pharmacokinetics (PK), poor efficacy, and high toxicity. The earlier lead optimization (LO) phase then represents a crucial step in the drug discovery process, since it involves the preparation and the selection of suitable drug candidates. In view of the increasing need for speed in the preclinical research and development, the determination of activity and selectivity is performed simultaneously with the evaluation of pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties. This multiparametric approach allows the early selection of the compounds with the best overall balanced druglike profile [1]. 

In the semiconductor technology area most of the experience has been accumulated from research and development in cleaning the silicon substrates. For CMP technologies a variety of additional materials are involved — insulators (like SiOj. doped SiOj, and polymers), high dielectric constant materials (like BaTiOj), polysilicon (doped or undoped), silicides to form low resistivity gate interconnections on top of doped polysilicon, metals (like Cu and Al, and their alloys, W, metal-nitrides, and Ta), silicon nitride, and many others, some of which have been discussed in earlier chapters. Thus cleaning processes must be... 

The clinical research and development is typically conducted in three phases, with each phase involving progressively more people. The aim of the first phase is to establish the safety of the drug. It involves a small number of healthy volunteers and lasts about 1 year. The effectiveness of the drug is determined in the second phase, which lasts about 2 years. In the third phase, the drug is used in clinics and hospitals to confirm the results of the earlier tests. The clinical research and development phase takes about 6 years. 

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