Domestic implementation

Many polymers, including the commodities, are resistant to the chemicals usually met in industry or at home and displace the metals previously used for applications such as domestic implements, gas and water pipes, factory chimneys, containers for acids and other chemicals. 

Early human civilizations used stone, bone, and wood for objects. Approximately ten thousand years ago, metals first appeared. The first metals used were those found in their native form, or in a pure, uncombined state. Most metals today are acquired from an ore containing the metal in combination with other elements such as oxygen. The existence of native metals is rare, and only a few metals exist in native form. Iron and nickel were available in limited supply from meteorites. The first metals utilized widely by humans were copper, silver, and gold. Pure nuggets of these metals were pounded, in a process known as cold hammering, with stones into various shapes used for weapons, jewelry, art, and various domestic implements. Eventually, smiths discovered if a metal was heated it could be shaped more easily. The heating process is known as annealing. Because the supply of native metals was limited, metal items symbolized wealth and status for those who possessed them. 

This is an evolution of the traditional concept of international law, which sees agreements between states as essentially that agreements/ contracts between states (governments). There is an expectation that countries take domestic implementation measures, as may be necessary, to ensure that their citizens will follow the same rules, but how this is done is a matter of state sovereignty and constitutional framework. 

However, it is questionable whether these new concerns have been translated into an overall strengthening of the BW prohibition regime. On the multilateral level the Inter-Review Conference process has focused on a small number of selected issue areas in which a substantial amount of information has been produced by BWC states parties. However, to the extent that much of this information is related to domestic implementation of BWC provisions, these activities follow from BWC Article IV on national implementation. Yet, this stipulation of the BWC should have been followed by states parties three decades ago. So, at best the current exercise represents an attempt to catch up with BWC implementation as it is required under the Convention and as such could be providing a foundation on which to build future efforts to deal with the changing BW threat. 

Sarah Gaventa, Concrete Design (2006). The unusualness of concrete has prompted many designers to exploit its properties in extreme ways, from domestic implements to industrial... 

Goldman, R. K. (2009) Internal Displacement, the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, the Principles Normative Status, and the Need for their Effective Domestic Implementation in Colombia. Anuario Colombiano de derecho internacional 2 59-85. 

Every developed nation has experienced product tampering incidents. The principal difference between domestic and foreign incidents is the motive of the tamperers. In the United States, typically random tampering without prior threat occurs whereas outside the United States, extortion prior to injury occurs, with money appearing to be the primary motive. Most developed nations are either implementing or modifying their rules on the use of tamper-evident packaging. Some features as they are used in the United States would have to be modified or the use of a secondary feature required to meet the standards of various other countries. 

In England, the Magna Carta provided a standard of measurement for the sale of ale and wine. In 1643, the English Parliament proposed the first tax on distilled spirits. In the American colonies, William Kieft, Director General of New Nethedand, imposed the first liquor tax of two guilders on each half vat of beer in 1640. Alexander Hamilton initiated an excise tax on domestic spirits in 1791. The tax was resented and ultimately repealed in 1800 by Thomas Jefferson. Except during the War of 1812, domestic spirits remained untaxed until 1862. At that time, a tax of 0.02/L was implemented, which has been increased periodically. In January 1991, the Pederal Excise Tax on distilled spirits was raised to 3.56 per titer or 13.50 per proof gallon. In addition, many states have substantially increased the state excise taxes on distilled spirits. 

Information on implementation of GMP inspection plans is available in only some of the countries. Where data exist, they indicate that plans were successfully followed or even exceeded their targets. This applies to Cuba, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Uganda, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. For Cyprus, however, inspections of domestic plants fell short of the planned values. Cyprus has 10 domestic manufacturers, and nine inspections were planned, but in 1997 only seven were carried out. The Netherlands has 86 manufacturers and 28 inspections were planned in 1998 all of them were carried out. Venezuela has 41 manufacturers and 23 inspections were planned in 1997, of which 35 were carried out. So a low implementation rate does not necessarily indicate a low inspection rate. Enforcement measures are available in case of non-compliance in Cyprus, Estonia, Malaysia, Tunisia, Uganda, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. In Cuba, no enforcement measures are specified for failure to comply with GMP standards. Comparatively speaking, there is less likely to be a workplan for inspection of distribution channels than there is for GMP inspection. Only four countries — Cyprus, Estonia, Uganda and Venezuela — carry out inspection of distribution channels based on such a plan. 

Especially the latter two numbers are still quite insufficient taking into consideration the tasks of such governmental office in the national implementation measures starting with the respective legislation and then supervision of the domestic chemical industry and any cooperative activities with the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). 

Fourth Annual Report to the President and Congress of the Advisory Panel to Assess Domestic Response Capabilities for Terrorism Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction Implementing the National Strategy, December 15, 2002, RAND. 

The report (7) summarized work by Richmond and Linton in England who found that 3% of all human prescriptions in a county studied were for tetracyclines, and that sewage from hospitals contained more resistant organisms than did domestic sewage. They concluded that the main selective pressure for tetracycline-resistant organisms was from medical rather than veterinary use. Richmond stated that "no reduction had occurred in the incidence of antibiotic-resistant Ej coli in Europe following the implementation of regulations recommended in the Swann Report" (7). 

Normative work to assist States in the ratification and implementation of the international treaties, the development of domestic legislation on drugs, crime and terrorism, and the provision of secretariat and substantive services to the treaty-based and governing bodies and... 

Energy demand, the implementation of sulfur oxide pollution controls, and the future commercialization of coal gasification and liquefaction have increased the potential for the development of considerable supplies of sulfur and sulfuric acid as a result of abatement, desulfurization and conversion processes. Lesser potential sources include shale oil, domestic tar sands and heavy oil, and unconventional sources of natural gas. Current supply sources of saleable sulfur values include refineries, sour natural gas processing and smelting operations. To this, Frasch sulfur production must be added. 

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