Docosahexaenoic acid retina

Brain and retina are the tissues containing the highest contents of docosahexaenoic acid 586... 

Docosanoids, enzyme-derived docosahexaenoic acid metabolites, were identified initially in the retina 587... 

Anderson, R. E., Maude, M. B., Alvarez, R. A, Acland, G. and Aguirre, G. D. A hypothesis to explain the reduced blood levels of docosahexaenoic acid in inherited retinal degenerations caused by mutations in genes encoding retina-specific proteins. Lipids 34, S235-S237,1999. 

Human milk is rich in essential fatty acids of both the omega-3 and omega-6 families. This suggests that the activity of the A -desaturase may be too low in the infant to provide a sufficient amount of these fatty acids for development of tissues, particularly the brain and retina. It has been shown that development of visual acuity in infants is dependent upon the presence of docosahexaenoic acid in mother s milk. Hence, it is recommended that breastfeeding should be carried out for as long as 12 months after birth. These fatty acids are now added to commercial infant feeds (Chapter 15, Table 15.8). 

Anderson GJ, Connor WE, Corliss JD (1990) Docosahexaenoic acid is the preferred dietary o>-3 fatty acid for the development of the brain and retina. Pediatr Res 27 89-97 Assies J, Lieverse R, Vreken P, Wanders RJA, Dingemans PMJA, Linszen DH (2001) Significantly reduced docosahexaenoic and docosapentaenoic acid concentrations in erythrocyte membranes form schizophrenic patients compared with a carefully matched control group. Biol Psychiatr 45 510-522... 

German O. L., Insua M., Gentili C., RotsteinN. R, and Politi L. E. (2006). Docosahexaenoic acid prevents apoptosis of retina photoreceptors by activating the ERK/MAPK pathway. J. Neurochem. 98 1507-1520. 

Hayasaka et al. [157] reported the determination of the fatty acid distribution in mouse retina by using AgNPs in nano-PALDI-IMS. The sections were sliced to a thickness of 10 pm and sprayed with AgNPs or DHB matrix solution at 50 mg/mL in 70 % methanol/0.1%TFA. The mouse retinal sections were analyzed at a high spatial resolution with a scan pitch of 10 pm. The MS images showed the distribution of palmitic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), arachidonic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). 

Anderson GJ, Connor WE, Corliss JD. Docosahexaenoic acid is the preferred dietary n-3 fatty acid for the development of the brain and retina. Pediatr. Res. 1990 27 89-97. 

The first synthetic route which may serve as a potential source of phosphatidylcholine-bearing docosahexaenoic acid (85) and tetracosahexanoenoic acid for physiological studies has been described. This method may also be applicable to the synthesis of phosphatidylocholine homologues having longer chains, such as those identified in bovine retina. ... 

The essential fatty acids are also converted in the body to the 22-carbon fatty acids docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). DPAis made from linoleic acid DHA is made from linolenic acid.The functions of these 22-carb-on fatty acids are not clear, but they may be important for vision and for other functions of the nervous system. DPA and DHA can be further elongated, in the body, to the "very-long-chain fatty acids." The very-long-chain fatty adds contain 24 to 34 carbons, and occur in the brain, rods of the retina, and in the testes (Sixh et al., 1996). Their functions are not clear. 

Stinson AM, Wiegand RD, and Anderson RE. Recycling of docosahexaenoic acid in rat retinas during n-3 fatty acid deficiency. J Lipid Res 1991 32 2009-2017. 

Abedin L, Lien EL, Vingrys AJ, Sinclair AJ. The effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid compared with docosahexaenoic acid on brain, retina, liver, and heart in the guinea pig. Lipids 1999 34(5) 475-482. 

Arbuckle LD, Innis SM. Docosahexaenoic acid in developing brain and retina of piglets fed high or low alpha-linolenate formula with and without fish oil. Lipids 1992 27(2) 89—93. 

Heird WC, Prager TC, Anderson RE. Docosahexaenoic acid and the development and function of the infant retina. Curr Opin Lipidol 1997 8(1) 12—16. 

Rodriguez de Turco EB, Gordon WC, Bazan NG. Rapid and selective uptake, metabohsm and cellular distribution of docosahexaenoic acid among rod and cone photoreceptor cells in the frog retina. J Neurosci 1991 lll(l) 3667-3678. 

Wang N, Anderson RE. Synthesis of docosahexaenoic acid by the retina and retinal pigment epithelium. Biochemistry 1993 32 13,703-13,709. 

Pawlosky RJ. Salem N Jr. Ethanol exposure causes a decrease in docosahexaenoic acid and an increase in docosapentaenoic acid in feline brains and retinas. Am J Clin Nutr 1995 61 1284—1289. 

Anderson GJ, Connor WE. Accretion of n-3 fatty acids in the brain and retina of chicks fed a low-linolenic acid diet supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 1994 59 1338-1346. 

Lee J, Jiao XP. Gentleman S, Wetzel MG, O Brien P, Chader GJ. Soluble binding proteins for docosahexaenoic acid are present in neural retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1995 36 2032-2039. 

Martin RE, De Turco EBR, Bazan N. Developmental maturation of hepatic n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism supply of docosahexaenoic acid to retina and brain. J Nutral Biochemistry 1994 5 151-160. 

Wiegand RD, Koutz A, Stinson AM, Anderson RE. Conservation of docosahexaenoic acid in rod outer segments of rat retina during n-3 and n-6 fatty acid deficiency. J Neurochem 1991 57 1690-1699. 

Aside from essential amino acids, the n-3 and n-6 fatty acids constitute the largest chemical component of the cerebral cortex and retina that can be obtained only from the diet. The body cannot synthesize either the n-3 or the n-6 structure. Once the basic n-3 structure is consumed in the form of linolenic acid (18 3), the body can synthesize the longer-chained and highly polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (22 6), which is the n-3 fatty acid so predominant in the nervous system. Similarly, in the n-6 series, linoleic acid (18 2) is converted to arachidonic acid (20 4), the predominant n-6 fatty acid... 

Membrane lipids constitute 50-60% of the solid matter in the brain (O Brien, 1986), and phospholipids are quantitatively the most significant component of membrane lipids (Crawford and Sinclair, 1972). A major proportion of brain phospholipids contain long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids of the two essential fatty acid classes, n-6 and n-3 (Crawford et al., 1976, O Brien et al., 1964). These fatty acids usually occupy the sn-2 position of the brain phospholipid molecules. Normally, docosahexaenoic acid (22 6n-3, DHA) is the predominant polyunsaturated fatty acid of the phospholipids of the cerebral cortex and retina. The primate brain gradually accumulates its full complement of DHA during intrauterine life and during the first year after birth (Clandinin et al., 1980a, Clandinin et al., 1980b). 

The fact that such an elaborate system of DHA maintenance is in place suggests that its presence serves some important function in the retina. Otherwise, why not let the DHA levels fluctuate as a function of dietary intake On a similar issue Crawford and Sinclair (1972) found that proportions of arachidonic, docosatetraenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids in brain gray matter lipids were constant in over 30 species. In contrast, other tissues such as liver and muscle reflect species dietary intake (Crawford Sinclair, 1972). The fact that PUFAs comprise approx 7% (dry weight) of brain gray matter (Sinclair, 1975),... 

Anderson RE, Chen H, Stinson A. The accretion of docosahexaenoic acid in the retina. World Rev Nutr Diet 1994 75 124-127. 

Bazan NG, Rodriguez de Turco EB, Gordon WC. Docosahexaenoic acid supply to the retina and its conservation in photoreceptor cells by active retinal pigment epithelium-mediated recycling. World Rev Nutr Diet 1994 75 120-123. 

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