Technology, critical, importance

The syntheses and fabrication procedures themselves often play a key structure-controUing role in the preparation of materials with optimum properties. Detailed characterization of the structure and bonding is of major concern to the solid-state chemist. Control of structure and bonding during preparation and processing allows control of the critical, technologically important properties. Such control is necessary to optimize material performance. 

MATERIALS SCIENCE IS A CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY for America. In 1987 and again in 1990, the U.S. Department of Commerce included advanced materials such as ceramics, polymers, advanced composites, and superconductors in a short list (1) of very important emerging technologies. The world market based on these advanced materials was estimated conservatively at 600 million by the year 2000. 

Effective utilization of a critical technology requires a much closer collaboration throughout the whole chain in which the material is used. Critical technologies evolve and develop over a long period, and so they can support a broad industrial base. This relationship creates a certain inertia with respect to revolutionary change, but it certainly indicates that it is very important to stimulate and maintain evolutionary change. 

Interfacial electron transfer is the critical process occurring in all electrochemical cells in which molecular species are oxidized or reduced. While transfer of an electron between an electrode and a solvated molecule or ion is conceptually a simple reaction, rates of heterogeneous electron transfer processes depend on a multitude of factors and can vary over many orders of magnitude. Since control of interfacial electron transfer rates is usually essential for successful operation of electrochemical devices, understanding the kinetics of these reactions has been and remains a challenging and technologically important goal. 

Electrooxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide at platinum has been extensively studied mainly not least because of the technological importance of its role in methanol oxidation in fuel cells [5] and in poisoning hydrogen fuel cells [6]. Enhancing anodic oxidation of CO is critical, and platinum surfaces modified with ruthenium or tin, which favor oxygen atom adsorption and transfer to bound CO, can achieve this [7, 8]. 

This review sets out to present a comprehensive overview of the current development of Mg solid-state NMR as at mid-2011. Magnesium is a highly significant critical element in the solid-state chemistry of technologically important ceramics, minerals and glasses, as well as being important in the structure and function of many biomolecular systems. ... 

In all vacuum systems, the pressure obtained is determined by the gas load and the effective pumping speed. In UHV systems at equilibrium, the predominant gas load arises from the outgassing of the internal surfaces. Although gas sources in vacuum systems have been discussed in Chapter 4, no differentiation was made between gas adsorbed on a surface and that absorbed within its structure. Various applications of UHV technology involve the use of vacuum systems that cannot be baked in situ and consideration of the choice of material for the vacuum envelope and also its surface treatment is critical. An important starting point for this is an understanding of the interaction of gas with materials. 

Pits in Stainless Steel. Much work has been carried out on pits in stainless steel because of their particular technological importance. As with the A1 case described in some detail in Section 12.3, the work on stainless steel in contact with Cl" containing media points to an entry point for CF diffusion through the passive film. These entry points (the beginning of pits) may arise from inclusions in the steel and for 304 stainless steel in particular, it is MnS inclusions that are critical (Szklarzcka-Schmialowska, 1986). 

Technological properties are properties of matters of technological importance [Katritzky, Maran et al, 2000 Katritzky and Fara, 2005]. Together with all the physico-chemical properties (such as, for example, critical temperature, vapor pressure, flash point, surface tension, and density) that are able to characterize any material constituted by pure species, other technological properties are those describing more speciflcally characteristics of materials, such as polymers, oil mixtures, and surfactants. 

The Impact of the private rate of return due to new products (innovation) averages about 30 to 40% In the chemical Industry, but the social rate of return, l.e., the Impact on our total economy, may be three times as great. This leverage effect may be particularly important In new critical technology areas such as energy. The Congress and the Executive... 

The critical infrastructure and critical technology in the human system ensure services in territory, i.e. certain quality and hierarchy of public services. A measure of level of services in a territory consists in a judgement of different sorts of services that have different importance from the viewpoint of live and security of humans in the integral sense. There is a reality that different sorts of services are ensured by different partial infrastructures that are dependent because among them there are interdependences. This fact always manifests at severe disasters (beyond... 

---