Context-based curricula

Context-based curricula developed in five countries were reviewed in a special issue of the International Journal of Science Education (2006, bl. 28, Number 9). Schwartz (2006) discussed the American experience with ChemCom Chemistry in the Community, and mainly with Chemistry in Context (CiC). Bennett and Lubben (2006) presented Salters Advanced C/zemixfiy that was developed in Britain. Hofstein and Kesner (2006) reported on Israeli materials focnsing on industrial chemistry as the main school chemistiy theme. Parchmaim et al. (2006) considered the German contextual version, Chemie im Kontext (CluK). Finally, Bulte,... 

Before we look at the evidence for the effects of context-based curricula, we will present some illustrative examples from different phases of education. 

Millar (1996) has described the distorting effect that the need to aim simultaneously at two targets has on the curriculum. For the designer of context-based curricula, it can lead to contrived contexts for example, it is difficult to imagine a context within which to teach about the Periodic Table that is relevant to the immediate world of 14 year olds. 

The need to provide for both generalists and specialists is a considerable challenge for advocates of context-based curricula. A recent report (University of York Science Education Group, 2001) advocates a differentiated approach a core science curriculum for all, together with optional additional modules for those who wish to specialise in future. With such an arrangement, core science can be truly context-based and feature the kind of science that students will find useful throughout their lives. The optional modules, while taking a context-based approach where appropriate, are freed of the need to manufacture contrived contexts where these are not appropriate. 

The broader range of subject matter and teaching and learning approaches in context-based curricula calls for a broader range of assessment approaches. Some novel approaches have been used, including open book papers, individual investigations and an assessed industrial visit. There is scope for further research to inform the development of assessment models that are fit for purpose in this field. 

Bulte, A.M.W., Klaassen, C.W.J.M., Westbroek, H.B., Stolk, M, Prins, G.J., Genseberger, R., De Jong, O. Phot, A. (2002). Modules for a new Chemistry Curriculum Research on a Meaningful relation between Contexts and Concepts. Paper presented at the Second international IPN-YSEG S)nnposium Context-based Curricula, October 10-13, 2002, Kiel, Germany. 

Nentwig, P., Parchmann, I., Demuth, R., Graesel, C. Ralle, B. (2002). Chemie im Kontext, from situated learning in relevant contexts to systematic development of chemical concepts. Paper presented at the second IPN YSEG Symposium on context-based curricula, October 10- n, Kiel, Germany. 

Context and Chemistry Going Dutch The Development of a Context-Based Curriculum in the Netherlands... 

Abstract In the Netherlands a new context-based curriculum has been designed to cope with the problem of the diminishing attention for chemistry as a subject. The curriculum consists of a number of modules in which a context is introduced. Based on scientific questions related to the context chemical concepts are discussed with the students. An experiment preliminary to implementation is being carried out in 20 schools. The design of the curriculum and the first results of this experiment are presented in this paper. A number of problems have been encountered. It seems possible to attain the ultimate goal of nationwide implementation in 2012. 

In countries where there is an imperative to liberalise and modernise the political and social system, a context-based curriculum can be seen as a means towards this end. This motivation is apparent, for example, in the UNESCO-funded adaptation of Salters Advanced Chemistry for Kazakhstan (Burkitbaev, 2001). 

There seem to be no accounts of the actual competitive selection of contexts based on principles such as those. However, Bulte et al. (Bulte, Westbroek, van Rens, Pilot, 2004 Bulte et al, 2005) have undertaken context-based curriculum development based on the notion of authentic practice where the context selected is one in which the methodology adopted by the chemists and/or chemical technologists is clearly identifiable such that an analogy to it, suitable for work in a seminar room and laboratory, can be drawn. 

The content of a curriculum must be functional when dealing with societal activities necessary chemical concepts, skills and attitudes with respect to macro-micro thinking must be included. This can be derived from representative authentic tasks. The content of the curriculum should be considered as a chemical toolbox. The traditional content of the present chemistry curriculum, such as the stmcture of atoms, ionic theoiy, fundamental acid-base calculations, are not necessarily part of the chemical toolbox when addressing chemical and technological tasks. The validity of the toolbox (philosophical substmcture) is determined by the representative practices and tasks related to chemistry (cf need-to-know principle in context-based approaches). 

Whilst we will focus where possible on aspects of curriculum materials developed for use in chemistry teaching, the fact the majority of materials with a context-based approach have been developed for use at the secondary level means that they very often embrace chemistry as part of a science course. It is in any case a feature of context-based approaches that the science they embrace ramifies beyond the traditional subject disciplines, reflecting the realities of the way science is applied in practice. 

An examination of a number of context-based courses reveals several common characteristics. These characteristics, either implicitly or explicitly, reflect what the developers see as desirable in chemistry teaching. In this section we summarise the perceived benefits of a context-based approach, and consider some of the disadvantages. We will categorise the benefits into the following areas curriculum design, effects on students understanding, effects on students responses to chemistry and chemistry lessons, and effects on teachers. 

Adopting a context-based approach has an effect on both the content of a chemistry curriculum and on the teaching and learning approaches adopted. 

A truly context-based approach would operate as follows. The designers would identify those contexts perceived to be relevant to the group of students concerned. In the case of Science the Salters Approach for 14 to 16 year olds, the contexts were selected as those closest to students immediate lives food, warmth, clothing and so on. Having selected these contexts, designers next identify the science content that students need in order to make sense of them in scientific terms. Any scientific concepts that do not arise from the contexts would be omitted from the curriculum. A curriculum developed in such a way would not necessarily cover all the concepts expected in a traditional curriculum for example, the designers of Science the Salters Approach found that the periodic table did not arise in any of the contexts employed. 

A context-based approach makes it possible to develop a curriculum whose content is closely related to the needs of the students concerned, as determined by the contexts in which they will lead their lives. A perceived benefit of a context-based approach is thus that it is a good way, perhaps the only way, to develop a curriculum for scientific literacy. As the University of York Science Education Group put it in their report (2001) ... 

Given their widespread use and claims for their benefits, one of the most interesting features of context-based approaches is the comparative lack of systematic research-based evaluation into the effects of their use. In part, it may be that this lack of research is related to the way in which curriculum development is funded, where the priority is often the writing of the materials, with little in the way of resources left to support research-based evaluation. However, as the use of context-based materials has become more widespread, there has been increasing interest in gathering evidence to establish to what extent the aspirations of those developing the materials have been fulfilled. 

Kortland, K. (2005). Physics in personal, social and scientific contexts A retrospective view on the Dutch Physics Curriculum Development Project PLON. In P. Nentwig D. Waddington (Eds.), Making it relevant Context based learning of science (pp. 67-90). Munster Waxmann. 

The four questions address the contextual, organizational, delivery, and content options that must be explored, both individually and collectively, by persons creating the thematic curriculum. A competence-based curriculum is therefore dependent on the context of the instimtion offering the curriculum. The technical institutes should have a dialog with the industry to include their need in the curriculum. 

Figure 1 also shows that the curriculum has a focus on context-based learning, in the manner of PLON (e.g. Eijkelhof Kortland, 1988), although this has diminished during the decade of use of the curriculum (Hart, 2002). 

The ideal curriculum describes the basic philosophy and rationale behind a curriculum, e.g. whether to use a context-based, SSI- or an ESD driven curriculum This information is often laid down in general parts of a curriculum description and in the outline of its objectives. 

Prof. Dr. Albert Pilot is professor emeritus of curriculum development and also professor emeritus of chemistry education at Utrecht University (The Netherlands). His research focuses on context-based chemistry education and professional development of science teachers. In recent years this involved the design and development of a new chemistry curriculum for the secondary school in the Netherlands. Professional development of teachers was a major component in this innovation project, planned for many years and involving all teachers in the chemistry domain. 

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