Compensatory behavior

Abstract For more than a half century, tobacco manufacturers have conducted sophisticated internal research to evaluate nicotine delivery, and modified their products to ensure availability of nicotine to smokers and to optimize its effects. Tobacco has proven to be a particularly effective vehicle for nicotine, enabling manipulation of smoke chemistry and of mechanisms of delivery, and providing sensory cues that critically inform patterns of smoking behavior as well as reinforce the impact of nicotine. A range of physical and chemical product design changes provide precise control over the quantity, form, and perception of nicotine dose, and support compensatory behavior, which is driven by the smoker s addiction to nicotine. Cigarette... 

Manufacturers acted to take advantage of compensatory behavior that was driven by smoker s addiction to nicotine, and enhance it through cigarette designs that supported compensation. A 1977 BAT review observed ... 

B. Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors in order to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or other medications fasting or excessive exercise... 

C. The binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviors both occur, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months... 

Nonpurging type during the current episode of BN, the person has used other inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as fasting or excessive exercise, but has not regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas... 

If it is further assumed that there is an exponential dependence of nt on Eu and the distribution of site energies is such that the activation energy values extend between the limits El to E2, it may be shown that the preexponential term includes a factor exp( + 1/y) and, in consequence, there is compensatory behavior. More complete treatments of this model, including further references, are given by Laidler [(33), pp. 119 and 195] and by Bond [(3), p. 143],... 

It can be shown, through substitution of appropriate values into Eq. (5), that variations in the values of x in a series of related reactions results in compensatory behavior, subject to certain further conditions. Since the properties of Eq. (5) have been described particularly extensively in previous articles (73, 34-38), the analysis will not again be repeated here. It is worth mentioning, however, that the composite reaction does not strictly obey the Arrhenius equation, although the error present may be below the limits that can be... 

Other instances of compensatory behavior in reactions on alloys have been described and discussed in the literature [see, for example, Bond (5) para-hydrogen conversion (pp. 170-172), olefin hydrogenation (pp. 248-250), benzene hydrogenation (pp. 321), and decomposition of formic acid (pp. 426-429)]. 

At this point, I will not explore in detail the issues around the acquisition of experience in a specific situation. These issues are dealt with in Chap. 7 where concepts such as familiarization and co-worker compensatory behaviors are discussed in detail. For now, it is sufficient to realize that new employees vary in experience and this variance has important implications for safety. Table 3.1 shows the key variables which an organization should consider the type of new employee, the experience they have before starting their new job, the ability of that experience to generalize to the new job, and the relative time it may take for the new employee to be considered experienced. It is impossible to acmally place specific times into the last column of Table 3.1, as this will vary considerably from job to job, from organization to organization, and from individual to individual. However, the general pattern shown in Table 3.1 is likely to apply to most situations. 

Table 5.1 Correlations between trust in selection processes and, trust in new employees, perceived risk from new employees, and employees compensatory behaviors toward new employees obtained in 3 studies...

Study Sample Correlation between trust in selection processes and trust in new employees to work safely Correlation between trust in new employees and perceived safety risk from new employees Correlation between perceived safety risk from new employees and compensatory behaviors to ensure new employee safety... 

Table 6.1 Relationships between perceptions of prestart training, trust, risk-taking, and compensatory behaviors...

Co-workers reactions to new employees have been termed compensatory behaviors (Geller et al. 1996). These are behaviors which attempt to compensate for the fact that the employee is new to the job, and needs familiarizing with all aspects of the job. Of course familiarization is required in both directions the new employee will need to become familiar with all aspects of the job, including their co-workers behavior and attitudes, and co-workers will need to become familiar with the new employee s behavior and attimdes. The latter is particularly important for co-worker safety. New employees can be somewhat unpredictable in their behavior due to a desire to be helpful (Burt et al. 2014). Chapter 8 focuses specifically on helping behaviors which new employees may engage in and the risks these may pose to co-workers. In addition to unexpected helping behaviors, new employees can be unpredictable in how they work, and co-workers need to be veiy mindful of this. 

A further factor which can influence co-worker compensatory behaviors is the performance demands which are placed on them. Interaction with a new employee requires time, time which will be taken away from other productive activities. A number of studies have shown a relationship between workload/performance pressure and safety (e.g., see Christian et al. 2009 for a review), with safety decreasing as performance demands increase. One mechanism which may explain these findings is the limitations which high performance demands place on employees, and in particular how they limit employees ability to provide compensatory behaviors for new employees. Arguably new employee adaption, and their familiarization, will be slower in a situation where performance demands placed on co-workers preclude effective interaction with new employees. Thus any formal arrangement between a co-worker and a new employee needs to allow the co-worker the time necessary to provide the degree of support the new employee needs. 

Co-worker compensatory behaviors may also be determined by how well the coworker knows the new employee (Burt et al. 2008). The acquisition of knowledge about a new employee is at the basis of the finding that similarity between a new employee and co-workers is likely to prompt acceptance (e.g., loardar 2007 Ziller and Behringer 1960). Basically, if the new employee appears to share similar values, interests and attitudes to exiting co-workers— he or she is likely to be liked and responded to in a positive way. This result is consistent with findings from basic social psychology research which have demonstrated that individuals tend not... 

Fig. 7.1 Interaction between knowledge of new employees and the provision of compensatory behaviors...

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