Climatic factors precipitation

Site-specific climatic factors that are important to selection of landfill cover type and to design of ET landfill covers include daily measurements of precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity, total solar radiation, and wind run.6 45 55 If all of the data are not available, one can make useful—but less accurate—estimates of cover performance using only daily precipitation and maximum and minimum temperature measurements. 

Any model used for ET cover design should, at a minimum, be able to utilize daily precipitation and temperature data and preferably should be able to utilize the other important climate factors as well in order to produce the most accurate estimates. 

Thus, the Martonne aridity index defines not only climatic parameters but also vegetational ones. Seasonality of precipitation is another climatic factor that affects desert and steppe boundaries. For a given mean annual temperature, the boundary of a steppe will extend into wetter climates if its precipitation falls mainly in the summer. This is because summer evapotranspiration depletes soil moisture more thoroughly than winter evapotranspiration. For similar reasons, the size of a desert will be larger if its precipitation falls in the summer rather than in the winter (Monger et al., 2004). 

Temperature, humidity, precipitation, and evaporation are important factors that contribute to the oxidation of sulfide minerals. In warm and wet climates, excessive precipitation may produce persistently high water tables and extensive biological activity that may create reducing conditions in the shallow subsurface and hinder sulfide oxidation (Seal et al., 2002, 208). At the surface, high humidity and temperatures would promote the oxidation of sulfide minerals (Williams, 2001, 274). Frequent precipitation would also suppress evaporation and the formation of arsenic salt deposits (Seal et al., 2002, 208). Furthermore, precipitation and groundwater, which are controlled by climate, are the major sources of water for the production of arsenic-contaminated runoff from sulfide-bearing rock outcrops. 

This includes also catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions and the impaet of celestial bodies. It is beyond the focus of this book to describe the physics of sueh alterations. However, with an understanding of the chemical evolution of the eli-mate system (Chapter 2), it is evident that different chronological processes are superposed and that the different causes are interlinked in the sense of climatic feedbacks which make it very difficult to quantify climate changes and variations. Temperature and precipitation, as the most important climatic factors, are interrelated, but they are also interrelated with atmospheric composition and surface characteristics which again are interrelated. 

Climate and weather are closely related and both are believed to influence debris flow activity. The influence of rainfall has already been discussed and tends to be of immediate concern on the short term time scale over which debris flows occur. Because climate describes average weather over a long period of time it is not always considered as a factor in the analysis of debris flow occurrence. Climatic factors that are likely to influence debris-flow initiation are seasonality of precipitation, storm types, and dominant storm tracks (Wilson, 1997, Wilson, R.C., 1997). Other climatic factors that should also be considered are water budget, record rainfall for any recorded storm, maximum observed precipitation intensity, and average wind direction. 

Many factors affect the mechanisms and kinetics of sorption and transport processes. For instance, differences in the chemical stmcture and properties, ie, ionizahility, solubiUty in water, vapor pressure, and polarity, between pesticides affect their behavior in the environment through effects on sorption and transport processes. Differences in soil properties, ie, pH and percentage of organic carbon and clay contents, and soil conditions, ie, moisture content and landscape position climatic conditions, ie, temperature, precipitation, and radiation and cultural practices, ie, crop and tillage, can all modify the behavior of the pesticide in soils. Persistence of a pesticide in soil is a consequence of a complex interaction of processes. Because the persistence of a pesticide can govern its availabiUty and efficacy for pest control, as weU as its potential for adverse environmental impacts, knowledge of the basic processes is necessary if the benefits of the pesticide ate to be maximized. 

Many factors influence the production and composition of leachate. One major factor is the climate of the landfill. For example, where the climate is prone to higher levels of precipitation, there will be more water entering the landfill and therefore more leachate generated. Another factor is the site topography of the landfill, which influences the runoff patterns and again the water balance within the site. 

Mountain chains such as the European Alps constitute an important factor in atmospheric circulation [1]. They trigger a variety of climatic and meteorological effects and cover a wide range of the spatial scale [2]. For example, they are manifested in the modification of the inner-continental climate zones or in the small-scale distribution of precipitation. Both can be important for the hydrology of alpine catchments. 

The quality of potato tubers depends upon genetic, climatic, biotic, chemical, and edaphic factors varietal characteristics precipitation, temperature and sunshine conditions competition with other plants the use of chemicals and the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil, which influence the capacity of the crop to take up the necessary water and nutrients to ensure success. 

Weather is the daily status of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloud cover and wind. Climate is the average of these conditions over a number of years. Weather is a daily happening. Climate describes the conditions that remain predictable. Weather changes day to day. Climate is the same for a place. Climate is affected by the same factors. 

The range of techniques discussed in this volume measure local elevation, local relief, erosion and several environmental variables including precipitation, temperature, seasonality, and enthalpy. Relief, erosion and environmental records are related to paleoaltimetry through (1) empirically and theoretically determined climate-elevation relationships, and (2) assumptions about how erosion and relief relate to elevation change. While reading this volume, the reader should consider the specific measurement provided by a particular technique and its sensitivities to other factors. A broad range of approaches provides the opportunity to be both circumspect and comprehensive with tectonic and geomorphic interpretations based on paleoaltimetry data. 

---