Cellulose nanocrystal

The reaction appears to be well suited for selective conversion of biomass carbohydrates into their corresponding oxidized derivatives. This system serves to oxidize several polymeric carbohydrates including starches and pullulan.445 49 More recent work has described the TEMPO-catalyzed introduction of carboxyl groups in native cellulose and its different morphological forms,45(M52 cellulose derivatives,453 and the surface of cellulose nanocrystals.454 The related biopolymer, chitin, also is oxidized under these conditions.455... 

Montanari, S., Rountani, M., Heux, L., and Vignon, M. R., Topochemistry of carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals resulting from TEMPO-mediated oxidation. Macromolecules 2005, 38 (5), 1665-1671. 

S. Montanan, M. Roumani, L. Heux, and M. Vignon, Topochemistry of car-boxylated cellulose nanocrystals resulting from TEMPO-mediated oxidation,... 

Habibi, Y. Goffin, A.L. Schiltz, N. Duquesne, E. Dubois, R Dufresne, A. Bionanocomposites based on poly(epsilon-caprolactone)-grafted cellulose nanocrystals by ring-opening polymerization. J. Mater. Chem. 2008, 18 (1), 5002-5010. 

Paralikar, S.A. Simonsen, J. Lombardi, J. Poly(vinyl alcohol)/cellulose nanocrystals barrier membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2008, 320 (1), 248-258. 

Dong, S. Hirani, A.A. Lee, Y.W. Roman, M. Synthesis of FITC-labelled, folate-targeted cellulose nanocrystals. Technical Programming Archive. In 239th ACS National Meeting, San Francisco, CA, Maieh 21-25, 2010 p. CELL-061. 

Roman, M. Dong, S. Hirani, A. Lee, Y.W. Chapter 12 Cellulose nanocrystals for drug delivery. In Polysaccharide Materials Performance by Design Edgar, K.J., Heinze, T., Buchanan, C. Eds. ACS Symposium Series 1017. American Chemical Society Washington, DC, 2009. 

Roman, M. Novel applications of cellulose nanocrystals From drug delivery to micro-optics. In Proceedings of the Mil Technical Conference and Review, Blacksburg, VA, October 22-24, 2007. 

Colacino, K.R. Dong, S. Roman, M. Lee, Y.W. Cellulose nanocrystals A novel biomaterial for targeted drug delivery applications. FASEB J. 2011, 25, 762.3. 

Annamalai PK, Dagnon KL, Monemian S, Foster EJ, Rowan SJ, Weder C. Water-responsive mechanically adaptive nanocomposites based on styrene-butadiene rubber and cellulose nanocrystals— Processing matters. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 6(2) (2014) 967-976. 

Habibi, Y., Lucia, L. A., and Rojas, 0. J. (2010). Cellulose nanocrystals Chemistry, self-assembly, and applications, Chem. Rev.. 110, 3479-3500. Zhu, L., Kumar, V., and Banker, G. S. (2001). Examination of oxidized cellulose as a macromolecular prodrug carrier Preparation and characterization of an oxidized cellulose-phenylpropanolamine conjugate, Int. 1. Pharm.. 223, 35-47. 

Jimenez, A., Latterini, L., and Kenny, J. M. (2014). Nano-biocomposite films with modified cellulose nanocrystals and synthesized silver nanoparticles, 101,1122-1133. 

Shin, Y, Bae, I. T., Arey B. W., and Exarhos, G. J. (2008). Facile stabilization of gold-silver alloy nano particles on cellulose nanocrystal,... 

Auad, M. L, Mosiewicki, M. A., Richardson, T, Aranguren, M. I., and Marcovich, N. E. (2010). Nanocomposites made from cellulose nanocrystals and tailored segmented potyurethanes, f. Annl Polvm.., 115,1215-1225. 

Pei, A H., Malho, J. M., Ruokolainen, J., Zhou, Q., and Berglund, L. A (2011). Strong nanocomposite reinforcement effects in polyurethane elastomer with low volume fraction of cellulose nanocrystals. Macromolecules. 44,4422-4427. 

Beck, S., Roman, M., and Gray, D. G. (2005]. Effect of reaction conditions on the properties and behavior of wood cellulose nanocrystal suspensions, Biomacromolecules. 6(2], 1048-1054. 

Hirai, A., Inui, O., and Horii, F. (2008). Phase separation behavior in aqueous suspensions of bacterial cellulose nanocrystals prepared by sulfuric acid treatment, Lanamuir. 25(1), 497-502. 

Habibi, Y, Hoeger, I., and Kelley, S. (2009). Development of Langmuir-Schaeffer cellulose nanocrystal monolayers and their interfacial behaviors. Lanamuir. 26(2), 990-1001. 

Ling, S., Huang, J., Chang, P. R., Wey, S., Xu, Y., Zhang, Q. (2013). Structure and mechanical properties of new biomass-based nanocomposite Castor oil-based pol3uirethane reinforced with acetylated cellulose nanocrystal, Carbol dnPo, 95, 91-99. 

Dong, H., Strawhecker, KE., Snyder, J.F., Orlicki, J.A., Reiner, R.S., Rudie, A.W. Cellulose nanocrystals as a reinforcing material for electrospun poly(methyl methacrylate) fibers formation, properties and nanomechanical characterization. Carbohydr. Polym. 87, 2488-2495 (2012)... 

Ultrasonic treatments [70] have the potential to change the morphology of the formed whiskers. When hydrolysis is carried out under ultrasonic treatment, a combination of both sulfuric and hydrochloric acids during the hydrolysis appears to generate spherical cellulose nanocrystals instead of rod like nanocrystal which are the typical morphology of whiskers. These spherical cellulose nanocrystals show better thermal stability mainly because they possess fewer sulfate groups on their surfaces [71]. 

Table 2.1 Geometrical characteristics, length and width, of cellulose nanocrystals (adapted from ref [38])...

The cellulose based materials that are used as nano-reinforcements are cellulose nanocrystals (i.e. whiskers and nanospheres), nanofibrillated cellulose, regenerated cellulose nanoparticles and electrospun nanofibers. A wide range of polymer matrices have been used to form cellulose nanocomposites. Synthetic polymers such as polypropylene, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) [102], waterborne epoxy [103], waterborne polyurethane [104], polyurethane [105], poly-(styrene-co-butyl acrylate) [106], poly(oxyethylene) [107], polysiloxanes [108], polysulfonates [109], cellulose acetate butyrate [110,111], poly(caprolactone) [112], poly(viny 1 alcohol) [113] and poly (vinyl acetate) [114]. Different biopolymers such as starch-based... 

Electrospinning processes are used to prepare nanocomposite fiber mats. In order to prepare nanocomposite fiber mats, mixtures containing the polymer solution and cellulose whiskers solution are placed in the appropriated electrospinning setup. Peresin et al. [128] have produced nanocomposite mats of poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals using this electrospinning technique. Smooth nonwoven mats with homogeneous nanofibers were obtained. Park et al. [129] have also incorporated cellulose whiskers into nanofibers of polyethylene oxide (PEO) by the electrospiiming process. 

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