Capital required

For the above reasons, gas Is typically economic to develop only if it can be used locally, i.e. if a local demand exists. The exception to this is where a sufficient quantity of gas exists to provide the economy of scale to make transportation of gas or liquefied gas attractive. As a guide, approximately 10 Tcf of recoverable gas would be required to justify building a liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant. Globally there are few such plants, but an example would be the LNG plant in Malaysia which liquefies gas and transports it by refrigerated tanker to Japan. The investment capital required for an LNG plant Is very large typically in the order of 10 billion. 

PG workstations have become powerful, are simpler to use, and are generally ubiquitous within both laboratory and office environments. Using Wiadows-based software now widely available on instmment data stations as a basis for the LIMS will reduce the training costs and capital requirements when implementing a LIMS. 

Production Costs and Capital Requirements. The production cost for 1.5 wt % from air, assuming 100% on-stream time, varies... 

ADVENT, developed by Union Carbide Corp., is capable of minimizing the energy and capital requirements of process synthesis. 

Developments. Electrolytic refining requires a large capital investment, and labor costs per kilogram of copper produced are high. Most refineries have traditionally operated at current densities of about 240 A/m. Thus, a tank house area of approximately 40 m is required per ton of copper produced daily. The use of higher current densities reduces capital requirements but may impair deposition efficiency and product quaUty. 

Ck is in excess of Cpc by an amount which, when compounded at an annual interest rate i for n years, will have a future worth of less the salvage or scrap value S. 11 the renewal cost of the equipment remains constant at (Cp S) and the interest rate remains constant at i, then Ck is the amount of capital required to replace the equipment in perpetuity. 

Factors that enter into any economic analysis of handhng-warehousing systems are (1) expected mechanical and economic life of the system (2) annual maintenance cost (3) capital requirements and expected return on investment (4) building-construction cost and land v ue (5) detailed analysis of each work position (to determine trade-offs of labor and equipment expected future costs and availability of labor are important) (6) relation of system control and personnel used in system (trade-offs of people versus mechanical control) (7) type of information system (computerized or manual) and (8) expected changed in product, container, unit pallet loads, and customer preferences during the life of the system. 

Equipment—client may not have the equipment required to manufacture a specific product. It may be that available capital and installation time are limited such that they simply can not design, acquire, install and test the process equipment to reach the desired capacity within the available budget and time. If a product is in the early stages of its life cycle, the capital required may be hard to justify. This could be based upon the low initial volume anticipated while developing the market or the need to take advantage of a time-sensitive business opportunity. Tolling can provide a means to safely produce introductoiy, short-term, or small volume products that would otherwise be uneconomic. 

The capital charge factor (/3) multiplied by the capital cost of the plant (Co) gives the cost of servicing the total capital required. Suppose the capital costs of a plant at the beginning of the first year is Co and the plant has a life of N years so an annual amount must be provided which is (Co/ + B). The first term (CoO is the simple interest payment and the second (B) matures into the capital repayment after N years (i.e. interest added to the accumulated sum at the end of each year), thus... 

The average for manufacturing industries is usually around 25% of sales. Changes in sales levels will give rise to movements in the working capital required to support them. The amounts can be calculated ... 

The possible advantages of this system over the equilibrium-limited reactor system are smaller catalyst beds, lower gas recycle requirements, and lower capital requirements. The possible disadvantages of this system are (a) practically no turn-down since any turn-down would be equivalent to decreased space velocities, closer approach to equilibrium, and higher temperature rises (b) maldistribution of gases across the bed would give rise to excessive temperature rises in zones of low flow and (c) considerably shortened catalyst life because of possible high local or zonal temperature and, concurrently, greater chances for carbon laydown. 

The first comparison is that of costs. In general, operating costs will be similar for all options. The capital requirement for Brocat is particularly high, the others are similar. In terms of reagent costs Brocat (air) and chlorine are the cheaper. 

The co-processing of coal with heavy crude oil or its heavier fractions is being developed to lower capital requirements for coal hquefaction and to integrate processing of the products of coal conversion into existing petroleum refineries. This development appears to represent the main route by which coal-based liquid fuels will supplement and perhaps someday displace petroleum-based fuels. 

Methods for estimating the working capital requirement are given by Bechtel (1960), Lyda (1972) and Scott (1978). 

Estimate the capital required for this project, and the production cost. 

Chapters 13 and 14. For an estimate of the working capital requirements, take either14 ... 

There are four principal factors that are paramount in selecting the best separation technique. They are the energy required for the separation, the capital required for the equipment used in the separation, the efficiency/effectiveness of the separation, and the vitality of the catalyst after the separation. General process considerations include ... 

In a typical practical conversion scenario, the capital required is likely to be in the region of 400-700 per tonne of chlorine capacity. For the existing West European chlor-alkali industry this amounts to a capital investment of some 3.2-4.8 billion. To achieve phase-out by 2010 this capital would have to be spent over the next ten years, i.e. at a rate of 320-480 million every year for the next ten years. This is very... 

Design reviews are conducted to refine requirements. Hazards are introduced to plant operators following laboratory work, EHS review, capital requirements review, and process hazard analysis. Reactivity is addressed during process hazard analysis and the initial review. 

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