Capacity sharing

Region Quantity Share (%>) Share Quantity Share (%) Capacity Share (%)... 

The geographical distribution of world ammonia capacity together with the apparent capacity utilization in 1994 is shown in Table 44. Europe and North America, which now together have a 25 % capacity share, lost their leading position (54 % in 1969) to Asia, which now accounts for 38% (17% in 1969), as may be seen from Figure 121. This... 

The allocation to industrial installations is based on sectoral emissions in the period 2000-2002 and on the emissions share of the installation in the sector s emissions in that period. This basic allocation principle is adjusted to accommodate several issues. Where individual unit data are not adequate, the installation receives its baseline capacity share using an average emissions benchmark for comparable facilities. Special provision is also made for cogeneration and process emissions, special circumstances during 2000-2002 (abnormal stops due to maintenance, breakdowns, changes in the installation, strikes, adverse weather etc.), and capacity increases after 1 July 2001 leading to an increase in emissions in excess of 20%. 

Fig. 5. 23. World soybean crushing capacity shares 2005. Source FAO, 2007 and author s calculations.

The lumped heat capacity, of each discretization element with volume V is proportional to its ratio of the entire battery volume V w h), where r is the radius and h the height of the battery. For a uniform discretization, the thickness of all hollow cylinders is identical (rlN). This leads to the following volume and heat capacity shares for the discretization elements ... 

The largest producer in Western Europe is Norit NV (plants in the Netherlands and UK), with an annual capacity share of almost 50% of the total capacity. Peat for thermal activation and sawdust for chemical (with phosphoric acid) activation are the main precursors used. Other producers are Chemviron (around 20% of total capacity), CECA (around 15%) and Pica (around 12%). A new company, ICASA, has started production in Spain of activated carbon from olive stones. Reactivation of spent activated carbon is important... 

If firms do not sell identical products, transshipment would not be very useful for creating flexibility. Exchange of capacity between two networked facilities (firm I s product can be manufactured in firm 2 s facility and vice versa) would be another way of providing flexibility. As an example, Renault s plant in Brazil produces two additional Nissan vehicles, while Nissan s plant in South Africa builds two additional Renault vehicles. A total of 11 vehicles are cross-manufactured (Ghosn 2009). Capacity sharing in network services is implemented through capacity swaps and redundancy agreements (Yankee 2001). Another example is the telecommunication tower, which is shared by multiple network operators (Chakravarty and Werner 2011). 

Although a tremendous number of fermentation processes have been researched and developed to various extents, only a couple of hundred ate used commercially. Fermentation industries have continued to expand in terms of the number of new products on the market, the total volume (capacity), and the total sales value of the products. The early 1990s U.S. market for fermentation products was estimated to be in the 9-10 x 10 range. The total world market is probably three times that figure, and antibiotics continue to comprise a primary share of the industry. Other principal product categories are enzymes, several organic acids, baker s yeast, ethanol (qv), vitamins (qv), and steroid hormones (qv). 

Such repositioning inevitably means reduced production volume, and for the first time this century production in the last decade has been below that a decade earUer (Eig. 9). Most capacity reductions have been in North America and especiaUy eastern Europe. This has been offset in part by capacity increases in the Ear East. Rayon is no longer a significant component of carpets, and has lost the disposable diaper coverstock business to cheaper and more easUy processed polypropylene. It has, however, gained share in health and hygiene products and is now a principal component of tampons worldwide. 

The U.S. naphthalene consumption by markets for 1992 is Hsted in Table 9. The production of phthaHc anhydride by vapor-phase catalytic oxidation has been the main use for naphthalene. Although its use has declined in favor of o-xylene, naphthalene is expected to maintain its present share of this market, ie, ca 18%. Both petroleum naphthalene and coal-tar naphthalene can be used for phthaHc anhydride manufacture. U.S. phthaHc anhydride capacity was 465 X lOM in 1992 (38). 

High density polyethylene (HDPE) is defined by ASTM D1248-84 as a product of ethylene polymerisation with a density of 0.940 g/cm or higher. This range includes both homopolymers of ethylene and its copolymers with small amounts of a-olefins. The first commercial processes for HDPE manufacture were developed in the early 1950s and utilised a variety of transition-metal polymerisation catalysts based on molybdenum (1), chromium (2,3), and titanium (4). Commercial production of HDPE was started in 1956 in the United States by Phillips Petroleum Company and in Europe by Hoechst (5). HDPE is one of the largest volume commodity plastics produced in the world, with a worldwide capacity in 1994 of over 14 x 10 t/yr and a 32% share of the total polyethylene production. 

Worldwide capacity for oxo process chemicals reached 7.0 x 10 metric tons at the start of 1990 (35). Market share for oxo chemicals is divided between Western Europe (36%), the United States (30%), Eastern Europe (12%), Japan (10%), other Asian countries (8%), and South America and Mexico (4%). U.S. 0X0 manufacturers, products, and capacities are given ia Table 2. 

The 1995 Canadian and United States sugar alcohol (polyol) production is shown in Table 2. The market share of each is also given. Liquids comprise 48% crystalline product comprises 39% and mannitol comprises 13% of the polyol market. An estimate of total U.S. sorbitol capacity for 1995 on a 70% solution basis was 498,000 t. ADM, Decatur, lU., produced 68,200 t Ethichem, Easton, Pa., 13,600 t Lon2a, Mapleton, lU., 45,400 t Roquette America, Gurnee, lU., 68,200 t and SPI Polyols, New Castle, Del., 75,000 t (204). Hoffman-LaRoche, which produces sorbitol for captive usage in the manufacture of Vitamin C (see Vitamins), produced about 27,300 t in 1995. 

To prevent contact with oxygen, the beer in the pressure tanks is exposed only to a carbon dioxide atmosphere. The pressure must be higher than the saturation pressure for carbon dioxide. Infection in the brewery is prevented by daily cleaning and disinfection of all equipment in contact with the beer. In the past, almost all the beer left the brewery in kegs, but today most beer is bottled or caimed. The ratio is different from country to country. The growing share of beer in bottles or cans has provided a great need for filling machines with capacities of up to 100,000 bottles or cans per hour. 

Western Europe has seven manufacturers of activated carbon. The two largest, Norit and Chemviron (a subsidiary of Calgon), account for 70% of West European production capacity, and Ceca accounts for 13% (42). Japan is the third largest producer of activated carbon, having 18 manufacturers, but four companies share over 50% of the total Japanese capacity (43). Six Pacific Rim countries account for the balance of the world production capacity of activated carbon, 90% of which is in the Philippines and Sri Lanka (42). As is the case with other businesses, regional markets for activated carbon products have become international, lea ding to consoHdation of manufacturers. Calgon, Norit, Ceca, and Sutcliffe-Speakman are examples of multinational companies. 

The most important chemical reaction of chi orohydrin s is dehydrochloriaation to produce epoxides. In the case of propylene oxide. The Dow Chemical Company is the only manufacturer ia the United States that still uses the chlorohydrin technology. In 1990 the U.S. propylene oxide production capacity was hsted as 1.43 x 10 t/yr, shared almost equally by Dow and Arco Chemical Co., which uses a process based on hydroperoxide iatermediates (69,70). More recentiy, Dow Europe SA, aimounced a decision to expand its propylene oxide capacity by 160,000 metric tons per year at the Stade, Germany site. This represents about a 40% iacrease over the current capacity (71). 

At processing complexes, central utiUties and other faciUties are shared by several battery-limits process plants. The capital cost of a central utiUty is sometimes charged to the capital cost of each battery-limits plant as an allocated capital cost based on the unit capital cost of the utiUty faciUty and the units of capacity of the utiUty required by the plant. In this case, the use charge per unit consumed only covers operating expenses. The alternative is to recover utihty capital costs, as well as operating expense, in the unit usage charge. 

Foreign synthetic ethanol capacity increased dramatically in the 1970s. In 1973, U.S. producers commanded a hefty 74% of the world synthetic ethanol capacity in 1977 the United States had only 54% of the worldwide capacity. By 1991, with the shutdown of several U.S. faciUties, the United States share had dropped to 39%. 

Capacity control is more complex in compressor networks where two or more compressors operate in series or parallel. Automatic distribution of the load between compressors is required. The antisurge and load sharing control loops must be coordinated to ensure surge protection while tlie load distribution and energy consumption are optimized. 

As mentioned in the introduction to the chapter, world capacity to produce polyethylene was of the order of so c. 50 X 10 t.p.a. in the late 1990s although production to that level is not expected until about 2002. By type, this market is shared between LDPE, HOPE and LLDPE approximately in the ratio 40 36 24. 

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