Atomic emission spectrophotometry instrumentation

Boron may be analyzed by various instrumental methods, such as atomic absorption (AA) and atomic emission spectrophotometry (ICP/AES). Individual isotopes at an exceedingly trace concentration in solution phase may be measured by ICP/MS. The later method should be preferred over the AA techniques. 

Cesium can be analyzed by various instrumental techniques including atomic absorption and atomic emission spectrophotometry and various x-ray methods. The most sensitive wavelength for AA measurement is 852.1 nm. It imparts a reddish violet color to flame. It is identified by specific line spectra having two bright lines in the blue region and several other lines in the red, yellow, and green. 

Cadmium in acidified aqueous solution may be analyzed at trace levels by various instrumental techniques such as flame and furnace atomic absorption, and ICP emission spectrophotometry. Cadmium in solid matrices is extracted into aqueous phase by digestion with nitric acid prior to analysis. A much lower detection level may be obtained by ICP-mass spectrometry. Other instrumental techniques to analyze this metal include neutron activation analysis and anodic stripping voltammetry. Cadmium also may be measured in aqueous matrices by colorimetry. Cadmium ions react with dithizone to form a pink-red color that can be extracted with chloroform. The absorbance of the solution is measured by a spectrophotometer and the concentration is determined from a standard calibration curve (APHA, AWWA and WEF. 1999. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed. Washington, DC American Public Health Association). The metal in the solid phase may be determined nondestructively by x-ray fluorescence or diffraction techniques. 

Calcium may be analyzed by several instrumental techniques such as atomic absorption and emission spectrophotometry, ICP—MS, neutron activation, and x-ray fluorescence and diffraction methods. For all these techniques,... 

Erbium may be analyzed by atomic absorption or emission spectrophotometry. Other instrumental analyses involve ICP-MS and x-ray techniques. 

Terbium may be identified by various instrumental techniques including atomic absorption and emission spectrophotometry and neutron activation analysis. 

Over many years, the simple flame test , whereby atoms of, say, sodium are excited in a flame, giving a characteristic yellow colour, has been developed as a sophisticated and sensitive instrumental technique (flame emission spectrophotometry). Sensitivity depends on dissociation of the injected materials into free atoms in order that the characteristic atomic emissions can be given. This in turn demands high flame temperatures. The combination of acetylene fuel with nitrous oxide as oxidant has proved highly successful for this purpose. What temperature is possible in theory The best mixture would correspond to the equation ... 

Compare flame emission and atomic absorption spectrophotometry with respect to instrumentation, sensitivity, and interferences. 

See also Air Analysis Outdoor Air. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry Principles and Instrumentation. Atomic Emission Spectrometry Principles and Instrumentation. Environmental Analysis. Gas Chromatography Overview Principles Instrumentation. Liquid Chromatography Overview Principles Instrumentation. Personal Monitoring Active Passive. Quality Assurance Quality Control Instrument Calibration. Spectrophotometry Ovenriew Inorganic Compounds Organic Compounds. 

Atomic spectrometric techniques such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), electrothermal AAS (ETAAS), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), and ICP-MS are used for the determination of elements, particularly metals. ICP-MS is the most sensitive, typically with microgram per liter detection limits and multielement capability but it has high start-up and operating costs. UV-visible spectrophotometry is also used for the determination of metal ions and anions such as nitrate and phosphate (usually by selective deriva-tization). It is a low cost and straightforward technique, and portable (handheld) instruments are available for field deployment. Flow injection (FI) provides a highly reproducible means of manipulating solution chemistry in a contamination free environment, and is often used for sample manipulation, e.g., derivatization, dilution, preconcentration and matrix removal, in conjunction with spectrometric detection. Electroanalytical techniques, particularly voltammetry and ion-selective electrodes (ISEs), are... 

See also Atomic Absorption Spectrometry Principles and Instrumentation. Atomic Emission Spectrometry Principles and Instrumentation. Elemental Speciation Overview. Food and Nutritional Analysis Sample Preparation. Ion-Selective Electrodes Overview. Quality Assurance Reference Materials. Sample Dissolution for Elemental Analysis Dry Ashing Oxygen Flask Combustion Wet Digestion Microwave Digestion. Spectrophotometry Inorganic Compounds. Titrimetry ... 

Charge coupled detectors These devices are not yet commonly available in commercial instrumentation for analytical spectrophotometry although they are used in applications in inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. However, they have found extensive application in imaging and astronomical applications. Essentially they are two-dimensional photodiode arrays which allow many spectra to be acquired in one readout. A typical array sensor is shown in Figure 9. 

We have seen the relationship between absorption spectrophotometry and spectrofluorometry. A similar relationship exists between atomic absorption spectrophotometry and atomic fluorescence spectrophotometry. In atomic fluorescence, the flame retains its role as a source of atoms these atoms, however, are excited by an intense source of radiation and their fluorescent emission is assayed at an angle of 90° in a manner similar to that of spectrofluorimetry. Lack of sufficiently intense source for many elements has been the limitation of this technique, however, with time instrumental developments are overcoming this problem. High intensity hollow-cathode lamps, or xenon or mercury discharge lamps are used. 

For determination of the elements, mainly spectrometric techniques are used here. Depending on the kind of element and the expected concentration level, the following methods are applied flame atomic emission spectrometry (flame AES), flame atomic absorption spectrometry (flame AAS), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), electrothermal atomisation (graphite furnace) atomic absorption spectrometry (ETA-AAS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), spectrophotometry and segmented flow analysis (SFA). Besides, potentiometry (ion selective electrodes (ISE)) and coulometry will be encountered. In many cases, more than one method is described to determine a component. This provides a reference, as well as an alternative in case of instrumental or analytical problems. 

Numerous methods have been published for the determination of trace amounts of tellurium (33—42). Instrumental analytical methods (qv) used to determine trace amounts of tellurium include atomic absorption spectrometry, flame, graphite furnace, and hydride generation inductively coupled argon plasma optical emission spectrometry inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry neutron activation analysis and spectrophotometry (see Mass SPECTROMETRY Spectroscopy, OPTICAL). Other instrumental methods include polarography, potentiometry, emission spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and x-ray fluorescence. 

Several different methods have been utilized for measuring iron in these biological samples. However, spectrophotometry is the most widely used because it does not require unusual equipment and is readily amenable to automation. Atomic absorption spectrometry is effectively used for tissue and urine analyses [33-35], but unreliable results are obtained with serum due to sensitivity limitations as well as matrix and hemoglobin interferences [35]. Other methods utilizing inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy [36], coulometry [37], proton induced X-ray emission [38], neutron activation analysis [39], radiative energy attenuation [40], and radiometry with Fe [41] have been described but, with the exception of coulometry, have not become standard procedures in the clinical chemistry laboratory, inasmuch as sophisticated and expensive instrumentation is required in some instances. However, some of them, e.g., neutron activation, may be the method of choice for definitive accurate analysis. 

Analysis of the spectrum of the H atom led to the Bohr model, the first step toward our current model of the atom. From its use by 19 -century chemists as a means of identifying elements and compounds, spectrometry has developed into a major tool of modem chemistry. The terms spectmscopy, spectrophotometry, and spectrometry refer to a large group of instrumental techniques that obtain spectra that correspond to a substance s atontic or molecular eneigy levels. (Elements produce lines, but complex molecules produce spectral peaks.) The two types of spectra most often obtained are emission and absorption spectra ... 

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