Atmospheric factors increase

Figure 8 shows values of (dZi/dz )a,t plotted vs. particle size for times ranging from one to 10 hours and an observation altitude of 15,000 meters. The calculations were done with the atmospheric parameters mentioned previously, and with a particle density Pp = 2.6 g./cm.3. Superimposed on the graph are lines corresponding to various initial cloud tops. The intersection of these lines with the dzi/dz lines gives the cutoff size values. As expected, the correction factor increases with time and particle size. For an initial cloud top at 35,000 meters, observations at t = 3 hours give a maximum particle size of 138/a, with the correction factor varying from zero for small sizes to 1.02, 1.15, and 1.62 at 50, 100, and 138/a, respectively. If the observation time is increased to five hours, the maximum particle size decreases to 113/a, and the correction factor values increase to 1.03,1.33, and 1.78 at 50, 100, and 113/a. 

The earth s atmosphere extends some 600 to 1500 kilometers into space. Two factors are involved in this great extension of the atmosphere. First, above about 100 kilometers, the atmospheric temperature increases rapidly with altitude, causing an outward expansion of the atmosphere far beyond that which would occur were die temperature within the bounds observed at the earth s surface. Second above Ihis dislance. the atmosphere is sufficiently rarefied so that the different atmospheric constituents attain diffusive equilibrium distributions in the gravitational field the lighter... 

This master equation can then be used to calculate the increase in environmental impact for the population, or the increase in wealth with the same technology, or to calculate the required emission reduction per unit GDP by new technology. If, for instance, wealth worldwide reaches the same level as now in the industrialized world, then W increases by a factor of 4. If the population (P) does not increase and technology ( / ) stays the same, then El (e.g., carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere) would increase by a factor of 4. To keep El at the same level, the technology should be improved to give an emission reduction of a factor 4 per unit product or service. In reality this use of the expression is too simplistic ... 

Imagine the following situation. Let the total biomass of the biosphere ( 9.6 1011 tC), all the organic matter of soil ( 14 1011 tC), and all the fossil chemical fuel, the known deposits of which constitute 128 10111 of conditional fuel (64 -10111 C), be burnt. Then, the amount of C02 in the atmosphere would increase by a factor of 12.5, and that of 02, respectively, would decrease—but only by 1.75%. Hence, the amount of oxygen over hundreds of years has to be practically constant. 

Atmospheric pressure is also called barometric pressure and is measured by an instrument called a barometer, as shown in Figure 6.2. The weight of the atmosphere pushes down on the mercury, holding it up in the tube. When the atmospheric pressure increases, as it does with clear weather, the mercury rises in the tube. When the atmospheric pressure decreases, as it does with stormy weather, the mercury falls to a lower level in the tube. A factor in the destructive power of a hurricane is the extreme low pressure associated with it. 

The velocity of the wind was found to have a marked effect on the degree of atmospheric pollution, increase in velocity being associated with a decrease in pollution. In the winter, on cloudy days, the pollution, as measured with the Owens automatic air filter, had an average shade of about 1.9 for a velocity of 5 miles per hr, 1.2 for a velocity of about 10 miles, and 0.8 for a velocity of about 20 miles, or when the velocity of the wind doubled, the pollution decreased to about six-tenths of its original value, and when the velocity quadrupled, the pollution decreased to about four-tenths. Wind direction also affected the degree of atmospheric pollution, but this factor depended on local conditions, such as the position of industrial areas, large bodies of water, etc. 

The reader is reminded here of Fig. 4, showing that the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere has increased significantly from the end of the last century until about 1958. Since this date an increase of 16 ppm has occurred (Bolin, 1977b), which means that the total increase is about 18 %. Butcher and Charlson speculate on the basis of Fig. 59 that this increase may be due theoretically to the following factors ... 

Conductivities and air-earth current densities on high mountains are greater than at sealevel by factors of up to 10. Conductivity decreases when atmospheric humidity increases. Values for space charges are not quoted because measurements are too few to allow calculation of average values. Values of parameters over the oceans are stiU rather uncertain. 

With the modern photosynthesis by cyanobacteria ( 2.3 Gyr ago), a huge consumption (equivalent to the atmospheric oxygen increase by a factor of 300) of CO2 into biomass occurs within a few million years. 

When the fuel rod segments were heated in a dry air atmosphere, much higher release fractions were observed (Collins et al., 1988). At 500 and 700 °C test temperatures, the iodine release fractions were considerably larger than those obtained in steam tests conducted at the same temperature likewise, at 700 °C the cesium release fraction was larger by about a factor of 60 than it was in a steam atmosphere. This increase in release rates was assumed to be caused by an increased porosity of the fuel pellet as a consequence of superficial UO2 oxidation, as well as of oxidation of iodide originally present in the fuel and in the gap to elemental iodine. 

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