Arctic areas

Arctic Drilling. Corrosion problems encountered in arctic area drilling are no different from problems faced in other areas of the world. It is a general misconception that during arctic drilling corrosion-related problems are either not very severe or totally absent due to low temperatures. Cool temperatures may slow down the corrosion process. However, they also increase the solubility of oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, the net result can be an increase in the rate of corrosion. While cold temperatures may cause problems, the temperature fluctuation common in arctic environments can be a more severe source of corrosion-related problems [215]. 

The Antarctic area at the extreme South and the Arctic area at the extreme North complete the classical zonation of the oceans (George 1979). I have added a fiirther commodious zonation, the Internal Seas. 

This large family is cosmopolitan except for arctic areas, with centers of distribution in tropical America and Africa. It is of major economic importance as the source of rubber, tung and castor oils, a basic food crop (manihot, native to South America and introduced into Africa and southeast Asia), and familiar ornamentals (croton, poinsellia). 

Except traditional slurry transport of coal as coal-water slurry or coal-water fuel, pipeline transport of coal in hydrocarbons seems to bring some advantage especially for arctic areas. 

TCDD and OCDD in the Arctic than in sub-Arctic areas is thought to be transpolar movement of aerosols from combustion-related sources originating in Eurasia (Norstrom et al. 1990). CDDs and CDFs were determined in caribou tissue samples from 7 herds across the Canadian Arctic (Hebert et al. 1996). In contrast to marine mammals, concentrations for caribou were extremely low, sub-ng/kg (lipid basis), for all congeners except OCDD and 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD in one herd. OCDD was found in most of the samples at concentrations ranging from < 0.2 ng/kg in fat to 4.7 ng/kg in adipose tissue. The one pooled liver sample analyzed from the Yukon had an OCDD concentration of 11 ng/kg (lipid basis). 

Ivory has been used for both practical and decorative purposes. In cultures where there were few hard materials available for making tools and weapons, the bones and teeth of large animals were very important for these purposes (Figure 6.28). People living on plains or in arctic areas created a vast array of items from the teeth of large animals. These include hunting tools such as... 

Other forms of keratin are bristles, quills and whiskers. The bristles from a sealion or the quills of a porcupine were the type of adornment popular for use on hunting or ceremonial masks. These masks have been used for several htmdred years, in various countries, from arctic areas to jungles. Hunting masks were made to look fri tening, and were worn in the hope that the prey being hunted would be too terrified to fi t back. Bird beaks were another suitable addition to the masks (Fig. 8.16). 

Special attention is being given to mineral extraction from bitterns formed by solar evaporation of seawater in arid waters or by seawater freezing in the Arctic areas. Such bitterns represent approximately 30-fold concentrated seawater with depleted concentrations of sodium, calcium, chloride and sulfate ions. 

At the beginning of the snow season, ground temperatures are usually close to 0°C, so that the temperature gradient is determined by the atmospheric temperature. In temperate areas with a maritime or Alpine snowpack, the temperature gradient will usually be less than 10" C.m while in subarctic or Arctic areas, it will usually be greater than 20°C.m ... 

Luoma PV, Nayha S, Pyy L, et al. 1992. Blood mercury and serum selenium concentrations in reindeer herders in the arctic area of northern Finland. Arch Toxicol Suppl 15 172-175. 

Saltwater fish Maintaining the proper saline (salt) concentration is important to the health of saltwater fish. In the ocean, the presence of salt in arctic areas keeps the water from freezing, allowing aquatic life to be sustained. 

Recently, offshore oil and gas fields have been explored in such arctic areas as in the Baltic Sea and off Alaska, buf cold region marine geotechnology requires further development. In response to this need the International S3unposium on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering has been held every year since 1981 wifh a session on Offshore Geofechnical Engineering. 

Hasle, J.R., Kjellen, U. and Haugerud, O. (2009) Decision on oil and gas exploration in an Arctic area Case study from the Norwegian Barents Sea , Safety Science, 47(6) 832-842. 

In the spring of 1993, the Russian report. Facts and Problems Related to Radioactive Waste Disposal in Seas Adjacent to the Territory of the Russian Federation [1], was released. The findings presented in that report were the result of a scientific study commissioned in October 1992 by the Office of the President of the Russian Federation. Related to the Arctic area, the White Book, as the report was later called, reported that ... 

Thule An airplane crashed on Thule in Greenland in January 1968 and four hydrogen bombs were exploded by their gunpowder. About 10 TBq of Plutonium was recovered from the snow surface, and about 1 TBq was estimated to be taken into ice. At about 20 km from the crash point, measurable plutonium was found in the summer of the year. The exposure was not estimated because the point is near the Arctic area and people do not live there. 

If the ethnographic literature on a culture does not mention lichens, it might be because that culture does not utilize lichens. However, it might also be because the ethnographer s culture does not value lichens, and the ethnographer therefore did not notice and record the value of lichens in the culture that they were documenting. In the cultures for which traditional uses of lichens have been recorded, there are usually between one and three medicinal lichens. There are more records of lichen use among cultures in temperate and arctic areas and less in the tropics. This probably represents the relative dominance of lichens in these zones. 

Even in remote Arctic areas, the lead content of recent snow does not provide a reliable indication of the uncontaminated background level, and Eskimos living in such areas now sometimes carry a relatively high body burden of lead. 

Freezing estuaries can be found all around the Arctic Ocean and also in sub-arctic areas in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. The ice conditions in estuaries can be quite dramatic with rapid freezing and melting. During out-flow events, cold and brackish siuface water may form a thin layer which may accelerate the freezing. On the other hand, during stormy inflow events with warm ocean water, even a thick ice-cover may melt fast. For a review of ice covered estuaries see Omstedt (1997). 

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