Air pollution state

J. H. Seinfeld, Urban air pollution state of the science. Science 243, 745-752 (1989) S. E. Schwarz, Acid deposition unraveling a regional phenomenon. Science, 243, 753-763 (1989). 

Brown TD, Schmidt CE, Radziwon AS. 1993. Comprehensive assessment of toxic emissions from coal-fired power plants. In Chow W, Connor KK, eds. Managing hazardous air pollutants - state of the art. Boca Raton, Florida Lewis Publishers, 116-125. 

Air Pollutants, State of the Art, pp. 162. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. 

D. C. Baker, W. V. Bush, and K. R. Loos. Determination of the Level of Hazardous Air Pollutants and Other Trace Constituents in the Syngas from the Shell Coal Gasification Process. Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants—State of the Art, Washington, DC. November 4-6, 1991. 

Table 1. Nationwide Air Pollutant Emissions Estimates for the United States in 1989 ...

Guiding Principles of State Air Pollution legislation U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1965. 

Proceedings, State of the Art of Odor Control Technology Specialty Conference, March 1974, Air Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1974. 

The benefits of alcohol fuels include increased energy diversification in the transportation sector, accompanied by some energy security and balance of payments benefits, and potential air quaUty improvements as a result of the reduced emissions of photochemically reactive products (see Air POLLUTION). The Clean Air Act of 1990 and emission standards set out by the State of California may serve to encourage the substantial use of alcohol fuels, unless gasoline and diesel technologies can be developed that offer comparable advantages. 

Automotive Emission Control Catalysts. Air pollution (qv) problems caused by automotive exhaust emissions have been met in part by automotive emission control catalysts (autocatalysts) containing PGMs. In the United States, all new cars have been requited to have autocatalyst systems since 1975. In 1995, systems were available for control of emissions from both petrol and diesel vehicles (see Exhaust control, automotive). 

The indirect hydration, also called the sulfuric acid process, practiced by the three U.S. domestic producers, was the only process used worldwide until ICI started up the first commercial direct hydration process in 1951. Both processes use propylene and water as raw materials. Early problems of high corrosion, high energy costs, and air pollution using the indirect process led to the development of the direct hydration process in Europe. However, a high purity propylene feedstock is required. In the indirect hydration process, C -feedstock streams from refinery off-gases containing only 40—60 wt % propylene are often used in the United States. 

Various laws have been passed in the United States to control air pollution. The first law that had any real effect was the Clean Air Act of 1970 (CAA), which was followed by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. Most recentiy, the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 (5) further changed and updated the requirements. 

Tide V of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 covers federally approved state operating permits for manufacturing faciUties. One requirement of this regulation is that manufacturers must report emissions information of identified ha2ardous air pollutants specific to thein operation from a list of 189 named in the Clean Air Act Amendments. Rubber and tine manufacturers had to meet this requirement by the end of 1995. The Rubber Manufacturers Association has begun an industrywide project to develop accurate and reliable emissions data to aid manufacturers to comply with these requinements (44). 

Poly(vinyl chloride) is Hsted on the TSCA inventory and the Canadian Domestic Substances List (DSL) as ethene, chloro-, homopolymer [9002-86-2]. Because polymers do not appear on the European Community Commercial Chemical Substances listing or EINECS, poly(vinyl chloride) is listed through its monomer, vinyl chloride [75-01-4]. In the United States, poly(vinyl chloride) is an EPA hazardous air pollutant under the Clean Air Act Section 112 (40 CER 61) and is covered under the New Jersey Community Right-to-Know Survey N.J. Environmental Hazardous Substances (EHS) List as "chloroethylene, polymer" with a reporting threshold of 225 kg (500 lb). 

The oil-fiimace process, based on the partial combustion of Hquid aromatic residual hydrocarbons, was first introduced in the United States at the end of World War II. It rapidly displaced the then dominant channel (impingement) and gas-furnace processes because it gave improved yields and better product quahties. It was also independent of the geographical source of raw materials, a limitation on the channel process and other processes dependent on natural gas, making possible the worldwide location of manufacturing closer to the tire customers. Environmentally it favored elimination of particulate air pollution and was more versatile than all other competing processes. 

Cement plants in the United States are now carehiUy monitored for compliance with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards for emissions of particulates, SO, NO, and hydrocarbons. AH plants incorporate particulate collection devices such as baghouses and electrostatic precipitators (see Air POLLUTION CONTROL methods). The particulates removed from stack emissions are called cement kiln dust (CKD). It has been shown that CKD is characterized by low concentrations of metals which leach from the CKD at levels far below regulatory limits (63,64). Environmental issues continue to be of concern as the use of waste fuel in cement kilns becomes more widespread. 

In 1966, the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control Board designated trichloroethylene as a photochemically reactive solvent that decomposes in the lower atmosphere, contributing to air pollution. In 1970 all states were requited to submit pollution control plans to EPA to meet national air quaUty standards. These plans, known as State Implementation Plans (SIPS), controlled trichloroethylene as a volatile organic compound (VOC). They were designed to have each state achieve the National Ambient Air QuaUty Standard (NAAQS) for ozone. The regulations were estabUshed to control the emission of precursors for ozone, of which trichloroethylene is one. 

To provide basic geographic units for the air-pollution control program, the United States was divided into 247 air quahty control regions (AQCRs). By a standard rollback approach, the total quantity of pollution in a region was estimated, the quantity of pollution that could be tolerated without exceeding standards was then calculated, and the degree of reduction called tor was determined. States were required by EPA to develop state implementation plans (SIPs) to achieve comphance. 

Initially, all major sources of air pollution are required to obtain an operating permit. However, any state permitting authority may extend the apphcability of the operating permit to minor sources as... 

Human-made sources cover a wide spectrum of chemical and physical activities and are the major contributors to urban air pollution. Air pollutants in the United States pour out from over 10 million vehicles, the refuse of over 250 million people, the generation of billions of kilowatts of electricity, and the production of innumerable products demanded by eveiyday living. Hundreds of millions of tons of air pollutants are generated annu ly in the United States alone. The five main classes of pollutants are particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and carbon monoxide. Total emissions in the United States are summarized by source categoiy for the year 1993 in Table 25-10. 

Air pollutants may also be classified as to the origin and state of matter ... 

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