Worldwide production, plastics

Adipic acid is a very large volume organic chemical. Worldwide production in 1986 reached 1.6 x 10 t (3.5 x 10 lb) (158) and in 1989 was estimated at more than 1.9 x 10 t (Table 7). It is one of the top fifty (159) chemicals produced in the United States in terms of volume, with 1989 production estimated at 745,000 t (160). Growth rate in demand in the United States for the period 1988—1993 is estimated at 2.5% per year based on 1987—1989 (160). Table 7 provides individual capacities for U.S. manufacturers. Western European capacity is essentially equivalent to that in the United States at 800,000 t/yr. Demand is highly cycHc (161), reflecting the automotive and housing markets especially. Prices usually foUow the variabiUty in cmde oil prices. Adipic acid for nylon takes about 60% of U.S. cyclohexane production the remainder goes to caprolactam for nylon-6, export, and miscellaneous uses (162). In 1989 about 88% of U.S. adipic acid production was used in nylon-6,6 (77% fiber and 11% resin), 3% in polyurethanes, 2.5% in plasticizers, 2.7% miscellaneous, and 4.5% exported (160). 

The uniqueness of methyl methacrylate as a plastic component accounts for its industrial use in this capacity, and it far exceeds the combined volume of all of the other methacrylates. In addition to plastics, the various methacrylate polymers also find appHcation in sizable markets as diverse as lubricating oil additives, surface coatings (qv), impregnates, adhesives (qv), binders, sealers (see Sealants), and floor poHshes. It is impossible to segregate the total methacrylate polymer market because many of the polymers produced are copolymers with acrylates and other monomers. The total 1991 production capacity of methyl methacrylate in the United States was estimated at 585,000 t/yr. The worldwide production in 1991 was estimated at about 1,785,000 t/yr (3). 

Phthahc anhydride (1) is the commercial form of phthaUc acid (2). The worldwide production capacity for the anhydride was ca 3.5 x 10 metric tons ia 1993, and it was used ia the manufacture of plasticizers (qv), unsaturated polyesters, and alkyd resins (qv) (see Polyesters, unsaturated). Sales of terephthahc acid (3) and its dimethyl ester are by far the largest of any of the benzenepolycarboxyhc acids 14.3 x 10 t were produced in 1993. This is 80% of the total toimage of ah. commercial forms of the benzenepolycarboxyhc acids. Terephthahc acid is used almost exclusively for the manufacture of poly(ethylene terephthalate), which then is formed into textiles, films, containers, and molded articles. Isophthahc acid (4) and trimehitic anhydride (5) are commercial products, but their worldwide production capacities are an order of magnitude smaller than for terephthahc acid and its dimethyl ester. Isophthahc acid is used primarily in the production of unsaturated polyesters and as a comonomer in saturated polyesters. Trimehitic anhydride is used mainly to make esters for high performance poly(vinyl chloride) plasticizers. Trimesic acid (6), pyromehitic dianhydride (7), and hernimehitic acid (8) have specialized commercial apphcations. The rest of the benzenepolycarboxyhc acids are not available commercially. 

Whereas the worldwide production of 2inc oxide [1314-13-2] is estimated to be around 500,000 t aimuaHy, only about 75,000—100,000 t are used for pigmentary appHcations by the paint industry. About 250,000 t are consumed by the mbber industry, and the rest is used in the production of plastics, paper, cosmetics, pharmaceutical products, ceramics, and glass (see Zinc compounds). 

The aimual worldwide production of carbon blacks, which iaclude a large variety of carbonaceous products, was estimated to be around six million metric tons ia 1994. More than 90% of this pigment is consumed by the mbber iadustries, ia particular, by the tire iadustry as a reinforcing agent. The rest (- 500, 000 t) is used for coloring plastics, printing inks, and paints. Particle size of carbon blacks varies from 5 to 500 p.m and can be controlled by the process conditions and feedstock (see Carbon, carbon black). 

An explosion and fire (March 13, 1991) occurred at an ethylene oxide unit at Union Carbide Chemicals Plastics Co. s Seadrift plant in Port Lavaca, TX, 125 miles southwest of Houston. The blast killed one, injured 19, and idled the facility, that also produces ethylene, ethylene glycol, glycol ether ethanolamines, and polyethylene. Twenty-five residents were evacuated for several hours as a safety precaution. The plant lost all electrical power, for a few days, because its cogeneration unit was damaged. The Seadrift plant, with 1,600 workers, is capable of making 820 million lb per year of ethylene oxide which is one-third of Carbide s worldwide production of antifreeze, polyester fibers, and surfactants Seadrift produces two thirds of Carbide s worldwide production of polyethylene. 

Based on over a century of worldwide production of billions of plastic products, they can be designed and processed successfully, meeting high quality, consistency, long life, and profitability. All that is needed is understanding the behavior of plastics and properly applying these behaviors. 

Iron has been the dominant structural material of modem times, and despite the growth in importance of aluminum and plastics, iron still ranks first in total use. Worldwide production of steel (iron strengthened by additives) is on the order of 700 million tons per year. The most important iron ores are two oxides, hematite (Fc2 O3) and magnetite (Fc3 O4). The production of iron from its ores involves several chemical processes that take place in a blast furnace. As shown in Figure 20-22. this is an enormous chemical reactor where heating, reduction, and purification all occur together. 

Currently, worldwide production of aldehydes exceeds 7 million tons/year (1). Higher aldehydes are important intermediates in the synthesis of industrial solvents, biodegradable detergents, surfactants, lubricants, and other plasticizers. The process, called hydroformylation or more familiarly, the Oxo process, refers to the addition of hydrogen and the formyl group, CHO, across a double bond. Two possible isomers can be formed (linear or branched) and the linear isomer is the desired product for these applications. 

EVOH is a speciality thermoplastic targeting specific applications and consumption is far smaller than for polyethylene and polypropylene. Worldwide production is estimated at 55 000 tonnes including 8000 tonnes consumed in Western Europe, that is to say, less than one thousandth of the total for plastics. Moreover, typical characteristics limit the applications and, consequently, relatively few grades are marketed, corresponding to the major applications ... 

Waldo Semon patented the use of tricresyl phosphate as a plasticizer for PVC in 1933. This was later replaced by the less toxic di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DOP), which is now the most widely used plasticizer. The worldwide production of plasticizer is on the order of 3.2 million tons annually. Volume-wise, about 90% of the plasticizers are used with PVC and PVC-containing systems. 

PCBs are industrial compounds used as industrial, dielectric and heat transfer fluids, organic solvents, flame retardants, plasticizers, sealant and surface coatings. They may also be released to the atmosphere by waste incineration (Fig. 3). The worldwide production of this compound has been 1.3 million tonnes, of which 97% in the northern hemisphere [23]. The amount of chlorine atoms in the biphenyl mixtures is related to the duration and temperature of the chlorination process. The commercial mixtures were distributed under names such as Aroclor (Monsanto, USA) or Clophen (Bayer, EU). The chlorine atoms can substitute the para, meta and/or ortho positions of the biphenyls. There are 209 possible congeners. PCBs can be divided into nine isomeric groups and one decachlorobiphenyl, all with an empirical formula of C Hjo-uCln (n = 1-10) (Fig. 4). 

PE is the most widely used mass-produced plastic. The worldwide production of PE at the early 1990s was 40 x 106 metric tons per year. Of this amount 16 x 106 tons were LDPE (low density PE), 8 x 106 were LLDPE (linear LDPE) and the remainder was principally HDPE (high density PE) (LDPE HDPE LLDPE=40 40 20). 

PLA is a biodegradable plastic. The first worldwide production facility for PLA opened by Cargill Dow LLC joint venture occurred at the end... 

Throughout the 20th century the development of plastics has been extremely spectacular based on its growth rate, but has been even more important in helping people worldwide. The plastic industry is a multibillion dollar business worldwide. Exciting discoveries and inventions have given the field of plastic products vitality. In a society that never stands still, plastics are vital components in its increased mobility. 

Other industrially important uses of P4O10 include the reactions with ethers, an example of which is the formation of triethyl phosphate via reaction with diethyl ether followed by pyrolysis. The product (which has a worldwide production of many thousands of tons per annum) finds use as ketene synthesis, a flame retardant, and a plasticizer within the plastics industry a less conventional use is as a simulant for the sarin when modeling situations involving the latter nerve agent. 

Different types of reactors are utilized for a wide variety of pyrolysis applications, including processing of waste plastics. The worldwide waste plastic pyrolysis systems utilize the fixed-bed designs of vertical shaft reactors and dual fluidized-bed, rotary kiln and multiple hearth reactor systems. The type of reactor used is chiefly based on material to be pyrolyzed and expected products from the pyrolysis. Stainless steel shaking type batch autoclave and stainless steel micro tubular reactors have also been used extensively [14]. Fluidized-bed reactors have been extensively used in producing raw petrochemicals from the pyrolysis of waste plastics [22, 24]. 

Over a period of many years polymeric materials have gradually replaced metals in many applications. Among the five leading thermoplastics low and high density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, and polystyrene polyethylene is the largest volume plastic in the world. Polyethylene was initially made in the United States in 1943. In 1997, the estimated combined worldwide production of both low and high-density polyethylene was 1.230 x 1010 kg (2.712 x 1010 lb) [10]. Low density polyethylene is produced at pressures of 1030 to 3450 bar (1020 to 3400 atm) whereas high density polyethylene is produced at pressures of 103 to 345 bar (102 to 340 atm) [11]. 

Polyamides are important engineering plastics and excellent fiber materials and their worldwide production amounts to a few million tons annually. Therefore, it is astonishing that not many approaches to synthesize polyamides via enzymatic polymerization have been reported so far. Chapter 5 reviews these approaches and hopefully inspires future research in this direction. 

Nowadays, various kinds of plastic products are used in our daily lives. In detail, polyolefins, represented by polyethylene and polypropylene, are modem indispensable materials because of their superb properties, namely, they are lightweight, inexpensive, possess good processability, chemical stability, high mechanical strength, etc. Therefore, their applications range over industrial materials, household products, and automobile parts to name just a few areas. The worldwide production of PE and PP went beyond 100,000,000 ton ear in 2005 and it is still increasing. 

The hardening of oils and fats by hydrogenation is an important industrial process - with worldwide production of hardened oils in excess of four million tons. Product applications include edible oils, margarine, mayonnaise, frying fats, confectionary, cosmetics, tyres, plastics and many more. The application of this reaction is growing at a significant rate. 

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