Vertebrate body parts

Among the vast diversity of vertebrate animals, there are certain body elements that many have in common, such as skin and bones. The following is a general discussion of those body parts that have historically been used to make things, either in their natural state, or processed somehow. 

Vertebrate animals may be preserved dry or in fluid. Traditional systematic species collections may include study skins, skeletons, and fluid-preserved animals or body parts. Study skins are, as the name implies, the skin of the animal with hair and feathers intact. In small animals, the bones are often left in place since it would be too difficult and damaging to remove them. In study skins, the eyes and mouth are usually filled with cotton, and the body is stuffed gently with either cotton or acid-free tissue in order to keep the skin extended to its original size and shape. Large animals, such as whales or elephants, require a great deal of preparation and storage space. Some researchers may keep only those parts that are relevant to their collections, like the skull or extremities. Soft tissue or stomach contents may be frozen or preserved in alcohol. 

Because Homo sapiens and domestic animals are to some degree herbivores, a large body of empirical knowledge has accumulated on the toxic properties of alkaloids (Tables I through V) and alkaloid-containing plants. Previously, the toxic properties of alkaloids in vertebrates was part of the definition (as a common denominator) for this group of natural products 38,39). In the following, the toxic or adverse effects of alkaloids are separately discussed for invertebrates (mainly insects) and vertebrates. 

The initiation and promotion of neoplastic transformation is followed by the final stage of the carcinogenic process, known as progression, which comprises the growth of the tumor and its spread to other body parts. There are several lines of evidence that at least some carcinogens present in food products are able to give rise to the described above sequence of events in higher and lower vertebrates (Anon., 1993). 

Homeodomain Proteins Many eukaryotic transcription factors that function during development contain a conserved 60-residue DNA-binding motif that is similar to the helix-turn-helix motif of bacterial repressors. Called homeodomain proteins, these transcription factors were first identified in Drosophila mutants in which one body part was transformed into another during development (Chapter 15). The conserved homeodomain sequence has also been found in vertebrate transcription factors, including those that have similar master control functions in human development. 

Additional research on cadmium is recommended in three areas (1) effects on cancer, genotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity under conditions of acute, intermediate, and chronic durations of exposure, and administered by way of diet, iiflialation, and dermal routes of exposure (2) emphasis on studies with pregnant animals and (3) methods for reducing toxic effects. Finally, the issue of the significance of cadmium residues in various body parts requires resolution. At this time, it appears that cadmium residues in the vertebrate kidney or liver that exceed... 

The influence of the medium and temperature on a state of water bound in a spongy component of human bones healthy and affected by osteoporosis was analyzed using NMR and other methods (Gun ko et al. 2006i). Two samples of human vertebral bone tissue were from healthy bone (man of 37 year old, sample M37) and bone affected by osteoporosis (man of 61 year old, sample M61). The bone mineral density (as a planimetric x-ray shadow density estimated from the XRD data obtained with a Hologic QDK-4500A apparatus) of a central part of the vertebral body in the vertical projection of the M37 sample is higher by 46% than that of M61. 

Another element is the structural long lordosis above the spondylolisthesis. In some cases, even the correction of the lumbo-sacral kyphosis has a limited effect on the lordosis above. True lordotic structural fixed deformity in the vertebral body and the disc could not be modified in this specific condition. The lordotic spine seems to be part of the primary condition of the sagittal balance and not only of the secondary changes due to spondylolisthesis progression. 

Spondyloptosis is the most severe form of spondylolisthesis. When the entire vertebral body of L5 is below the upper part of SI, on a standing lateral X-ray, the patient has spondyloptosis (Fig. 1). The slip angle, as defined by Boxall and Bradford [1], can vary remarkably within the population of patients who have spondyloptosis (Fig. 2). 

The effects of olanzapine on visceral and subcutaneous fat distribution, BMl, fasting glucose, and lipids have been examined by CT scanning in 14 patients with schizophrenia [43 ]. At 6 weeks, there were increases in BMl and the proportion of total fat at the level of the fourth vertebral body. The authors concluded that weight gain after olanzapine treatment is partly attributable to increased visceral fat and that this may contribute to the metabolic syndrome. 

For fiuoroscopic guidance, the patient is positioned prone. The appropriate radiographic profile for a pedicular approach is a straight anteroposterior view, with 5°-10° angulation. The pedicle is localized with fiuoroscopy and appears oval in shape. The needle is advanced into the pedicle under fiuoroscopic control. The needle tip is positioned in the anterior part of the vertebral body. With this... 

Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WRMSDs) and injuries are syndromes of chronic pain which can occur during the professional activity. They include a wide range of inflammatory and degenerative conditions affecting muscles, tendons, joints, blood vessels and peripheral nerves. These injuries can affect several body parts (vertebral column, elbow, hand, wrist and knee) (Punnet et al. 2004). 

Rotation is the greatest motion in the larger part of the thoracic spine (Tl-TlO). The amplitude of rotation is markedly decreased in the lower part ofthe region. The articular orientation ofthe thoracic vertebrae allows them to rotate about a point in the center of the vertebral body. The articular orientation of the lower thoracic vertebrae, however, is similar to that of the lumbar vertebrae and permits rotation only about a point near the spinous process. This rotation is greatly resisted by shearing forces in the intervertebral disk. The extent of rotation is further diminished by the resistance afforded by the intact costal cage. 

Generally, vertebral compression fractures are a consequence of osteoporosis, a disease characterized by a decrease in bone mass and a micro-architectural weakening of bone tissue. Considering that vertebral column is a complex structure whose aim is to provide mobility, flexibility and support to the upper part of the human body along with protection to the spinal cord maintaining as well as restoring it to its natural shape is essential. In particular, the vertebral body bears up to 20% of the compressive force supported by the human body [26]. Computed tomography scans of fractured... 

Figure 12.2 Percutaneous Vertebroplasty Needle insertion into the mid-part of the vertebral body (A), and cement injection (B, C, D). Reprinted with permission from [25]. Copyright 2012 Elsevier.

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