TOPICAL historical background

We turn now to the historical background to the effects of nitro and amino groups in aromatic systems. It would be appropriate to mention here that there have been several articles pertinent to these topics in earlier volumes of the Series. In 1968 Chuchani contributed a chapter on the directing and activating effects of the amino group and related groups32, with over 340 references. In 1970 Urbahski reviewed the directing effects of... 

Almost all of the experimental work cited in this chapter has been carried out in the last two decades. With few exceptions, the topics discussed are the subject of continuing research. Consequently, in addition to providing historical background and connections, in most cases I have attempted to indicate, at least briefly, the current status (as of 1997). 

Abstract The morphology of polyethylene has been an important theme in polymer science for more than 50 years. This review provides an historical background and presents the important findings on five specialised topics the crystal thickness, the nature of the fold surface, the lateral habit of the crystals, how the spherulite develops from the crystal lamellae, and multi-component crystallisation and segregation of low molar mass and branched species. 

The first section contains overview and introductory material, some historical background, summaries of the present state of knowledge, and other general topics applicable to all fossil fuel These include environmental consequences of fossil fuel combustion, polysulfide chemistry, microbial metabolism of sulfur compounds, and a review of methods for isolating sulfur compounds from petroleum. 

This chapter begins with some historical background to put NMR into perspective and concludes with a survey of the topics that we shall examine in the remainder of the book. 

The aim of this chapter is simply to take a quick look inside the computer, identify the main components, give a little historical background, and discover how everything works together. We ll cover each of the topics again in more detail in later chapters in this book, but our first chapter will serve as a useful overview. You ll be introduced to the following components ... 

The two parts of the present volume consist of 17 chapters written by experts from 10 countries. They start with historical background, followed by chapters on the theory, structure, thermochemistry, photophysics and photochemistry and electrochemistry of anilines, on their mass spectrometry, NMR spectra and analysis and on their modern syntheses by transition metal catalysed processes. Other chapters deal with their rearrangements, their reactivity as nucleophiles, their use as solvatochromic probes, their hydrogen bonded complexes, and their versatile uses in the chemical industry, and the relevant topic of toxicity and environmental aspects. A chapter on a special group of anilines—the proton sponges—ends the book. 

Harris was interested in the questions of technical hydraulics, practical hydrodynamics and engineering economics. He published mainly in the Bulletins of the Engineering Experiment Station of Washington University, with a particular emphasis on weir and orifice flows. He also considered the effect of pipe thickness on the intake losses, a topic that received increased interest as larger hydraulic schemes were erected. He further presented three books in hydraulics, namely the Fimdamentals, and two editions of Hydraulics. The 1936 edition is described as The object of this book is to present the various principles of hydraulics in the relationship most commonly encoimtered in engineering practice. Earnest effort is made not only to promote the wholesome respect for a scientific and historic background, but also to encourage ample consideration of the needs of modem industry . 

Porphyrins and phthalocyanines can be used as core, branches, and terminal groups of dendrimers that have been extensively used as bio-inspired models or mimics of natural systems such as hemoproteins and chlorophyll in photosynthesis, but also in host-guest chemistry, biosensors, photodynamic therapy, and catalysis. Aida et al. demonstrated the amplitude of this field in a review of 2009 [98]. In the following paragraphs, some historical backgrounds will be presented before focusing in a topic specifically concerned on the porphyrin-dendrimer electrochemistry and photoinduced electron transfer processes. 

The scope of the book is largely confined to the most recent developments in carbonylation chemistry. Since this book of special focus is not intended to go into the fine details of homogeneous catalysis as well as its historical background, only the most recent achievements of carbonylation chemistry are discussed. I believe there is no need to elaborate further on the earlier findings in view of the excellent textbooks already available. During the last decade, several novel synthetic reactions involving carbon monoxide have been discovered, as well as new methods such as biphasic carbonylation or application of ionic liquids have been developed. It is our purpose to provide a perspective of this formative period through the contributions of the experts on special topics of carbon monoxide activation by transition metals. 

This book is devoted to a complete and up-to-date treatment of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). In this introductory chapter, we cover the historical background of the technique, the basic principles of SECM, and an overview of some of its applications (covered in more depth in the later chapters). A number of general reviews of this field have also been published. " More focused reviews to particular topics are indicated in the following chapters. 

Despite this much-discussed theoretical background, the number of concrete studies comparing historical ideas and students conceptions is fairly low in chemistiy education. Furthermore, most studies cited deal with isolated topics. Systematic overviews concerning basic ideas like micro-macro thinking, chemical reaction, the particulate nature of matter, energy conversions etc. are mostly not available, except for van Driel et al. (1998) and the case of the chemical equilibrium. 

These books and articles present broad historical and general background to drug abuse and related issues, or deal wdth specific historical or cultural topics. 

This can be performed successfully both on metal electrodes (e.g. copper) or with graphite electrodes which have been previously impregnated with a solution of Apiezon (e.g. in benzene). In the latter case carriers such as CsCl may be useful so as to increase the line to background ratios as a result of their influence on the current voltage characteristics [354]. The copper arc method has found use in the determination of the rare earths in solutions, which was historically important in radiochemistry related topics [355-357]. 

Many of the chapters describe the historical developments leading to the specific topic under discussion and will provide the reader with interesting and useful background information. 

The topic REACH will not be covered in this chapter because of its complexity and too many open questions and answers respectively at the time of this writing. I hope, however, that in exchange a brief introduction to the historic development of the existing regulatory framework can be of help to understand the Safety Aspects, which are the background of the actual regulations as well as the forthcoming impediments in connection with REACH. 

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