Strain dependence testing

Fig. 10 shows that the flow stress of the hydrogen-alloyed compacts is essentially less than that of the outgassed ones at all test temperatuics. The flow stress relation between the hydrogen-alloyed and outgassed compacts depended on the strain. At equal strains at test temperatures, this ratio could achieve 2 or more. Thus, the effect of hydrogen on the properties of compacted powders is much similar to that observed on bulk titanium. 

The strains needed to initiate cracks in both the annealed and the sensitised materials were obtained using tapered slow-strain-rate specimens and the data are given in Fig. 8.36. As can be seen, there is little temperature dependence of the strain needed to initiate cracks in sensitised material whereas the annealed material was most susceptible to cracking at about 250°C. These results indicate the complicated response of Type 316 stainless steel to applied potential and demonstrate that, even though environmentally-assisted cracking may be generated by severe test methods, in this case the slow-strain-rate test, the results obtained must be used with care. For instance, the cracking of the annealed material at low potentials... 

In addition to examining pre-exposure effects, the slow strain-rate testing technique has been used increasingly to examine and compare the stress-corrosion susceptibility of aluminium alloys of various compositions, heat treatments and forms. A recent extensive review draws attention to differences in response to the various groups of commonly employed alloys which are summarised in Fig. 8.57. The most effective test environment was found to be 3 Vo NaCl -F 0.3 Vo HjOj. The most useful strain rate depends upon the alloy classification. 

One of the simplest criteria specific to the internal port cracking failure mode is based on the uniaxial strain capability in simple tension. Since the material properties are known to be strain rate- and temperature-dependent, tests are conducted under various conditions, and a failure strain boundary is generated. Strain at rupture is plotted against a variable such as reduced time, and any strain requirement which falls outside of the boundary will lead to rupture, and any condition inside will be considered safe. Ad hoc criteria have been proposed, such as that of Landel (55) in which the failure strain eL is defined as the ratio of the maximum true stress to the initial modulus, where the true stress is defined as the product of the extension ratio and the engineering stress —i.e., breaks down at low strain rates and higher temperatures. Milloway and Wiegand (68) suggested that motor strain should be less than half of the uniaxial tensile strain at failure at 0.74 min.-1. This criterion was based on 41 small motor tests. 

The viscoelastic behaviour of rubbers is not linear stress is not proportional to strain, particularly at high strains. The non-linearity is more pronounced in tension or compression than in shear. The result in practice is that dynamic stiffness and moduli are strain dependent and the hysteresis loop will not be a perfect ellipse. If the strain in the test piece is not uniform, it is necessary to apply a shape factor in the same manner as for static tests. This is usually the case in compression and even in shear there may be bending in addition to pure shear. Relationships for shear, compression and tension taking these factors into account have been given by Payne3 and Davey and Payne4 but, because the relationships between dynamic stiffness and the basic moduli may be complex and only approximate, it may be preferable for many engineering applications to work in stiffness, particularly if products are tested. 

The relationship is not particularly accurate because tan 8 is strain dependent and in an impact test the form of applied strain is complex and its magnitude not controlled. The value of tan 8 is assumed to be that relevant to a frequency of l/2t where t is the dwell time of the indentor. 

The control of minimum strain is even more important than the control of maximum strain in a flexing cycle because rate of cracking is much increased if this is zero. In all the methods described above, the strain is deliberately intended to be zero, but probably only in the Ross apparatus is this achieved precisely and in a reproducible manner. In all bending methods, the maximum strain depends on the thickness of the test piece and, hence, this must be closely controlled. 

Because the duration for one measurement is very short (e.g., with a 1-Hz input, a cycle is completed in 1 sec), a dynamic test is suitable for gaining information in a short time frame or for monitoring time-dependent changes in gel network properties. When monitoring the gelation process at a fixed frequency, it usually takes a few hours for G to become approximately constant. The constancy can be judged by a constant value of G at a fixed frequency during a subsequent frequency or strain sweep test, which usually takes several minutes. 

The problem of definition of modulus applies to all tests. However there is a second problem which applies to those tests where the state of stress (or strain) is not uniform across the material cross-section during the test (i.e. to all beam tests and all torsion tests - except those for thin walled cylinders). In the derivation of the equations to determine moduli it is assumed that the relation between stress and strain is the same everywhere, this is no longer true for a non-linear material. In the beam test one half of the beam is in tension and one half in compression with maximum strains on the surfaces, so that there will be different relations between stress and strain depending on the distance from the neutral plane. For the torsion experiments the strain is zero at the centre of the specimen and increases toward the outside, thus there will be different torque-shear modulus relations for each thin cylindrical shell. Unless the precise variation of all the elastic constants with strain is known it will not be possible to obtain reliable values from beam tests or torsion tests (except for thin walled cylinders). 

Our main result is that the nanotube can be manipulated by the gate voltage, which determines its deformation and stress, and modifies the eigen-modes. Though the eigenmodes of nanotube ropes have been measured in Ref. [12] four years ago, the strain dependence of the eigenmodes was only recently reported in Ref. [15]. ft demonstrates this effect for singly-clamped multi-wall carbon nanotubes. We expect that our predictions will soon be tested in experiments on doubly-clamped SWNTs. 

Strain-dependent antidepressant-like effects of citalopram in the mouse tail suspension test. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 183, 257-264. 

Certain drugs (e.g., ethanol) are known to be strain dependent in their effects and may not produce consistent results in the hole-board test. Many commonly used drugs (e.g., fluoxetine) have pronounced dose-dependent effects on head dipping behavior, and therefore, dosing should be carefully considered see review in (22). 

Figure 8.3. Strain dependence of elastic fraction of connective tissues using a sequential incremental loading program, the elastic fraction as a function of strain (%) for (A) aorta tested in the circumferential (A) and axial directions ( ), and skin (O), (B) pericardium ( ), psoas major tendon (A), and dura mater (O). (From Dunn and Silver, 1983.)...

There are several analytical tools that provide methods of extrapolating test data. One of these tools is the Williams, Landel, Ferry (WLF) transformation.14 This method uses the principle that the work expended in deforming a flexible adhesive is a major component of the overall practical work of adhesion. The materials used as flexible adhesives are usually viscoelastic polymers. As such, the force of separation is highly dependent on their viscoelastic nature and is, therefore, rate- and temperature-dependent. Test data, taken as a function of rate and temperature, can be expressed in the form of master curves obtained by WLF transformation. This offers the possibility of studying adhesive behavior over a sufficient range of temperatures and rates for most practical applications. Fligh rates of strain may be simulated by testing at lower rates of strain and lower temperatures. 

Next, whenever diffusion is considered to proceed simultaneously along with a non-steady state loading history, such as if slow strain rate tests were simulated, the stress-field is obviously time dependent, and so, the stress dependent element matrices do, too. Besides, when large geometry changes occur, the deformed distances become the diffusion paths of interest, so that coordinates x must be continuously updated with deformation displacements, and thus, they also become time dependent. As a result, all the element matrices in equations (13) must be updated throughout the simulation histories, i.e., they... 

It is known from hundreds of animal experiments that dietary changes can drastically shift dose-response patterns for the same chemical in the same species and strain of test animal. Shifts vary depending upon the chemical and its target. It is not unexpected (although there is not a great deal of direct evidence to demonstrate it) that human responses to environmental chemicals will also be diet-dependent. Consider, then, the effect of the highly variable human diet on toxicity. 

The low-speed mechanical properties of polymer blends have been frequently used to discriminate between different formulations or methods of preparation. These tests have been often described in the literature. Examples of the results can be found in the references listed in Table 12.9. Measurements of tensile stress-strain behavior of polymer blends is essential [Borders et al., 1946 Satake, 1970 Holden et al., 1969 Charrier and Ranchouse, 1971]. The mbber-modified polymer absorbs considerably more energy, thus higher extension to break can be achieved. By contrast, an addition of rigid resin to ductile polymer enhances the modulus and the heat deflection temperature. These effects are best determined measuring the stress-strain dependence. 

A final remarkable feature of teratogenesis is the dramatic species- and strain-dependent variability in susceptibility for some xenobiotics. For example, some strains of mice are sensitive to phenytoin teratogenicity, while other strains are resistant. In the case of thalidomide, primates (including humans) and rabbits are sensitive, while all rodent (mice and rats) strains tested are resistant. These differences must be considered in the design and interpretation of data from animal studies when directed towards an evaluation of human risk. 

All properties are time-dependent if you consider that the results of all the strength and stiffness tests depend on the rate of applying strain, dynamic test results depend on frequency, and properties change with time of aging. However, for the purpose of this chapter the term is used to cover the long-term effects of an applied stress or strain. 

FIGURE 90 Comparison ofthe experimental (1,2) and theoretical (3,4) dependences of failure strain on testing temperature T for PASF film samples, prepared from solutions in... 

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