Solar sensor

Briefly, dynamical behavior of both the suspended payload and the winching platform were documented in real time by a combination of accelerometers, gyros, load cells, solar sensors and a downward looking video monitor on the winch platform. As the descent phase unfoleded, several critical points became apparent ... 

An optical sensor that combines the functions of a twilight sensor and a solar sensor in one package is referred to as a light sensor. Light sensors have been on the market since 1997. 

The solar sensor is used in the air-conditioning system to compensate solar radiation. When an occupant is directly exposed to sunlight, he or she feels hotter than the actual temperature in the vehicle. The solar sensor therefore keeps the air temperature a little lower and supplies a slightly greater volume of air than the... 

Since the driver perceives heat differently depending on the elevation of the sun, the solar sensor is required to possess an angular response appropriate to the vehicle s thermal load characteristics. When the sun is overhead, at an elevation of 90°, the vehicle s thermal load is rather small owing to the vehicle roof, while it is largest when the sun is at an elevation about 40°. Since the driver perceives sunlight even when the sun is on the horizon, at an elevation of 0°, the solar sensor needs to have a response capability even for that angle. 

Fig. 7.13.9 and Fig. 7.13.10 show a light sensor assembly photographs and angular responses for both the solar sensor and the twilight sensor. The sensor is set to reach its maximum output when the sun is at an elevation about 40°, which is when the driver feels hottest. 

Current mirror distributes the photodiode output current to the solar sensor output and the twilight sensor output. 

Conventional air-conditioning systems have effected solar radiation compensation by means of a solar sensor. However, systems that detect human body temperature with an infrared sensor are also coming along. The infrared sensor is capable of sensing energies radiated by hot bodies such as a human body, since those energies are in the infrared region. 

FIGURE 9.13 MID solar sensor for in-car air-conditioning control (graphics courtesy of HARTING Mitronics/HELLA Fahrzeugkomponenten)... 

Since 1970 the subject of amoiphous semiconductors, in particular silicon, has progressed from obscurity to product commercialisation such as flat-panel hquid crystal displays, linear sensor arrays for facsimile machines, inexpensive solar panels, electrophotography, etc. Many other appHcations are at the developmental stage such as nuclear particle detectors, medical imaging, spatial light modulators for optical computing, and switches in neural networks (1,2). 

Fig. 4. Some electronic device applications using amorphous silicon (a) solar cell, (b) thin-fiLm transistor, (c) image sensor, and (d) nuclear particle detector.

Multilayered structures play an important role in the production of, e.g., biomaterials, catalysts, corrosion protectors, detectors/diodes, gas and humidity sensors, integral circuits, optical parts, solar cells, and wear protection materials. One of the most sophisticated developments is a head-up-display (HUD) for cars, consisting of a polycarbonate substrate and a series of the layers Cr (25 nm), A1 (150 nm), SiO, (55 nm), TiO, (31 nm), and SiO, (8 nm). Such systems should be characterized by non-destructive analytical methods. 

The chemical and electronic properties of elements at the interfaces between very thin films and bulk substrates are important in several technological areas, particularly microelectronics, sensors, catalysis, metal protection, and solar cells. To study conditions at an interface, depth profiling by ion bombardment is inadvisable, because both composition and chemical state can be altered by interaction with energetic positive ions. The normal procedure is, therefore, to start with a clean or other well-characterized substrate and deposit the thin film on to it slowly at a chosen temperature while XPS is used to monitor the composition and chemical state by recording selected characteristic spectra. The procedure continues until no further spectral changes occur, as a function of film thickness, of time elapsed since deposition, or of changes in substrate temperature. 

Plastics will continue to be required in space applications from rockets to vehicles for landing on other planets. The space structures, reentry vehicles, and equipment such as antennas, sensors, and an astronaut s personal communication equipment that must operate outside the confines of a spaceship will encounter bizarre environments. Temperature extremes, thermal stresses, micrometeorites, and solar radiation are sample conditions that are being encountered successfully that include the use of plastics. 

Among all semiconductor NPs, metal selenides have been the focus of great attention due to their importance in various applications such as thermoelectric cooling materials, optical filters and sensors, optical recording materials, solar cells, superionic materials, laser materials and biological labels. Many synthetic methods have been developed for the preparation of relatively monodispersed selenide nanopartides (Murray et al., 1993 Korgel... 

Fig. 4.14 SEM micrograph of CVD nickel-coated carbon microfibers (INCOEIBER 12K20) before (a) and after (b) the cathodic electrosynthesis of ZnSe on their surfaces (the scale bar is 8 and 10 p.m, respectively). Such low-dimensional substrates find apphcation in new-generation photovoltaic solar cells, chemical/biological sensors, and light-emitting devices. (Reprinted from [127], Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier)...

There is no doubt that metallic nanoparticles that have defined sizes and shapes will become key components of a number of novel, highly sophisticated products, the prototypes of which are currently emerging from the industrial R D departments. The outlook is promising for the industrial production of defined 1.4nm metal clusters for use as single electron switches or transistors, for the cost-effective fabrication of ultrapure metallic nanomaterials needed for dye solar cells or sensors, and for the reproducible production of (particularly) efficient and durable... 

A selection of applications is presented in the following subsections solar cells, TFTs, light sensors (visible, IR, X-ray), and chemical sensors. Also, light-emitting devices, in particular utilizing erbium incorporation in a-Si H, are presented. Finally, electrostatic loudspeakers in which an a-Si H film is incorporated are described. Details of various applications described here, as well as many other applications, can be found in the excellent edited books [4, 5, 11,13, 574]. 

If basic calculations such as those presented are to be conducted, it is important to collect enough weather parameters to calculate reference evapotranspiration ETf). An on-site weather station should be considered a basic requirement minimum sensor requirements to calculate a Penman equation would include solar radiation, wind speed, relative humidity or actual vapor pressure, and air temperature. An on-site rain gauge is essential but it is also a good idea to have a rain gauge on the weather station even if it is not directly on-site. The most accurate variations of the Penman equation calculate Tq on an hourly basis. However, Penman routines using daily summaries are typically satisfactory for the purpose of calculating soil-water recharge. 

In a cryogenic experiment, one or several detectors are used for a definite goal for which they have been optimized. For example, in CUORE experiment described in Section 16.5, the sensors are the Ge thermistors, i.e. thermometers used in a small temperature range (around 10 mK). One detector is a bolometer made up of an absorber and a Ge sensor. The experiment is the array of 1000 bolometers arranged in anticoincidence circuits for the detection of the neutrinoless double-beta decay. Note that the sensors, if calibrated, could be used, as well, as very low-temperature thermometers. Also the array of bolometers can be considered a single large detector and used for different purposes as the detection of solar axions or dark matter. 

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