Semolina, durum wheat

Most pasta products are produced from sanolina mixed with small quantities of salt and, in some instances, with egg products. Thus, the chemical composition of pasta is practically equal to semolina. In order to produce semolina, durum wheat is milled, and the pericarp, germ, and aleurone layer are removed (Chapter 7). Therefore, the refined milled product is practically devoid of fiber and fat, and is rich in starch (>75%) and protein (11%-13%). Fresh eggs or egg solids are used to manufacture some pasta and noodles in order to improve flavor, texture, and color. The use of egg upgrades protein content and quality, and also supplies phospholipids and essential vitamins and minerals. Table 17.13 depicts the chemical compositions of pasta products before and after cooking. 

I de Noni, G de Bernardi, L Pellegrino. Detection of common-wheat (Triticum aestivum) flour in Durum-wheat (Triticum durum) semolina by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) of specific albumins. Food Chem 51 325-329, 1994. 

Semolina is the coarsely ground endosperm of durum wheat. High in protein, it is used by U.S. and Italian manufacturers for high quality pasta products such as macaroni and spaghetti In Africa and Latin America it is also used for a dish called couscous. Durum flour, a by-product in the production of semolina, is used to make commercial American noodles. Farina is the coarsely ground endosperm of hard wheats. It is the prime ingredient in many American breakfast cereals. It is also used by manufacturers for inexpensive pasta. 

Brescia, M. A., Di Martino, G., Fares, C., Di Fonzo, N., Platani, C., Ghelli, S., Reniero, F., and Sacco, A. (2002b). Characterization of Italian durum wheat semolina by means of chemical analytical and spectroscopic determinations. Cereal Chem. 79, 238-242. 

Novaro, P., Colucci, F., Venora, G., and D Egidio, M.G. 2001. Image analysis of whole grains A non-invasive method to predict semolina yield in durum wheat. Cereal Chem. 78(3), 217-221. Odgaard, A. 1997. Three-dimensional methods for quantification of cancellous bone architecture. Bone 20, 315-328. 

Di Cagno, R., De Angelis, M., Atfonsi, G., De Vincenzi, M., Silano, M., Vincentini, O., Gobbetti, M. 2005. Pasta made from durum wheat semolina fermented with selected lactobacilli as a tool for a potential decrease of the gluten intolerance. J Agric Food Chem 53 4393-4402. 

Simonato, B., Pasini, G., De Zorzi, M., Vergo, M., Curioni, A. 2004. Potential allergens in durum wheat semolina and pasta Fate during cooking and digestion. It J Food Sci 16 151-163. 

Irvine, G.N. and Anderson, J.A. 1953. Variation in principal quality factors of durum wheats with a quality prediction test for wheat or semolina. Cereal Chem. 30, 334-342. 

Durum wheat grain (Triticum durum L.). Durum wheat is normally used to make pasta and semolina (n = 99). 

The commercial product semolina Cgriess ) is made from endosperm cells of hard durum wheats. Semolina keeps its integrity during cooking and is used mostly for pasta production. Since semolina is a milled flour of low extraction rate, it contains few minerals and vitamins. 

Semolina, durum flour, farina, flour—One or more of these wheat products constitute(s) the major ingredient of pasta. Semolina is the coarsely milled endosperm of durum wheat, while durum flour is more finely milled. Farina is similar to semolina, but it is obtained from other than durum wheats, whereas flour is the more finely milled endosperm of nondurum wheats. Each of these four fractions may contain only minimal amounts of branny particles. Generally, pasta makers prefer to use semolina and/or farina since products made from these meals hold up better in cooking than those made from the flours. 

Milling of the durum wheat into semolina. This milling procedure differs from that used to make flour in that a granular product is desired, with a minimum amount of flour. Hence, certain aspects of the flour milling procedure are altered in the production of semolina. The durum wheat is moistened before milling to toughen the outer layers of the wheat kernels so that they may be removed readily from... 

Durum wheat flour— The milling of durum wheat flour for making macaroni requires additional purifiers to separate the branny material from the desired semolina, a coarse granulation of the endosperm. By federal definition, semolina cannot contain more than 3% flour. 

A mutant tetraploid durum wheat that reduces amylose content has lead to the discovery of full and partial durum wheats. According to Vignaux et al. (2004), the waxy mutation did not affect grain yield, kernel size, or hardness. However, waxy cultivars contained more alpha amylase activity and lower semolina yield. The commercial growth of high yielding waxy durum wheats will bring new beneficial applications and probably new markets to the industry. 

Name of the refined milled fraction that has a coarser particle size compared to flour. Most semolinas are yellow pigmented due to carotenoids and xanthophylls. Semolina is obtained from durum wheats and has a range of particle-size distribution of U.S. + 60to+ 100. 

Durum wheat is usually milled into a granular product called refined semolina for pasta production (Table 7.5). Semolina is coarser than flour and is classified depending on average particle-size distribution into coarse, middle, or fine semolina. The average extraction rate is in the range of 65%-70%, and particle-size distribution is in the range of -60 to h-100 U.S. mesh. No more than 3% of the particles should pass a No. 100 sieve (Bizzarri and Morelli 1988, Kill and Turnbull 2001). 

Wheat is the most diverse cereal in terms of food uses and the cereal that is used to produce the most commercial products. This is because wheat is the only cereal that has functional gluten and is commercially available in three contrasting classes with different end uses. The soft, hard, and durum wheats are popular worldwide, especially in industrialized countries. The first two types are generally milled into flour, whereas the last is made into semolina (Chapter 7). The main uses of these milled fractions are for the production of a wide array of yeast- and chemical-leavened products, and short and long pastas. The major food uses of different wheat flours and semolina are depicted in Figure 10.1. 

For durum wheats, the rapid quautitatiou of caroteues is performed using a spectrophotometer or colorimeter (AACC Method 14-50). The yellow pigmentation can be quantified by overnight extraction in aqueous n-butauol followed by measurement of absorbance at 435.8 nm (Dexter and Matsuo 1978). More frequently, the color of semolina is judged visually or with refractive light colorimeters (Allen et al. 1989, Symons and Dexter 1991). 

FeiUet, R, and Dexter, J.E. 1996. Quality requirements of durum wheat for semolina milling and pasta production. Pages 95-131 in Pasta and Noodle Technology, J.E. Kruger, R.B. Matsuo, and J.W Dick (eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN. 

Durum, the hardest of all U.S. wheats, provides semolina for spaghetti, macaroni, and other pasta products. This spring-seeded wheat is grown primarily in the same northern areas as hard red spring, but small winter sown quantities are also grown in Arizona and California. Durum represents about 5% percent of total U.S. wheat exports. Subclasses are hard amber durum, amber durum, and durum. 

Abrol et al. (637), reporting on the darkening of whole wheat meal, due to the action of tyrosinase in bran, found added ascorbic acid (0.5-2.0 mg/kg) to retard the darkening effect. In another context, durum and other wheat granular flours (semolina) require retention of their natural yellow carotenoid content for the manufacture of pasta products which Dahle (638) and Walsh et al. (639) observed were stabilized by added L-ascorbic acid. 

Fanna ICresm of Wheatl This is graojiated endosperm that coniains rto bran and no more than 3% Hour ITs similar ID semolina except that the wheat is not a durum varietv. A hot breakfast cereal. Encriched ferine is popularly known as Crea/n of Whsat, a ptoduci made famous by Nabisco. 

According to end use, wheat is classified as soft, hard, and durum. The first two classes are almost always dry-milled into refined flour for the manufacturing of fermented and chemical-leavened bakery products such as breads, cakes, crackers, cookies, and flour tortillas (Figure 1.8). Durums are dry-milled into coarse refined meals called semolina, ideally suited for manufacturing of long and short pasta products. Rye flour is usually mixed with wheat flour for the production of fermented breads including sour breads, especially in Germany, Poland, Ukraine, and other European countries. 

AWB No.l durum consists of selected wheat varieties with vitreous, amber-colored kernels with a minimum protein of 13%. The semolina has high levels of stable yellow pigment and high water absorption, making it ideally suited to the production of a wide range of high quality wet and dry pasta products and couscous. 

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