Redundant weights

System rehabihty is improved by providing alternative means for performing the same task. For example, automobiles were equipped with hand cranks even though they had electric starters. This back-up equipment was provided because at that time starters were unrehable. In contemporary system design, factors such as added cost, weight, and space may prohibit the use of redundant systems. 

From the definition of a partial molar quantity and some thermodynamic substitutions involving exact differentials, it is possible to derive the simple, yet powerful, Duhem data testing relation (2,3,18). Stated in words, the Duhem equation is a mole-fraction-weighted summation of the partial derivatives of a set of partial molar quantities, with respect to the composition of one of the components (2,3). For example, in an / -component system, there are n partial molar quantities, Af, representing any extensive molar property. At a specified temperature and pressure, only n — 1) of these properties are independent. Many experiments, however, measure quantities for every chemical in a multicomponent system. It is this redundance in reported data that makes thermodynamic consistency tests possible. 

In summary, for engineering systems both F and M can be considered fundamental because of the engineering definition of weight in addition to Newton s second law. However, this results in a redundancy, which needs to be recified by the conversion factor gc. The value of this conversion factor in the various engineering units provides the following identities ... 

Thanks to the outside supply of substrates, such a cell should be capable of selfmaintenance and of self-reproduction, including replication of the membrane s components. However it would not make low-molecular-weight compounds and would not have redundancies for its own defense and security - all self-repair mechanisms are missing. Also, there is the problem of leakage and lack of concentration gradients and cell division would be simply due to a physically based statistical process. 

Because of the low efficacy of the drugs listed in Table 37-5, intensive research continues. (Some drugs approved for other indications that reduce appetite and possible future weight loss drugs are set forth in Table 37-5.1, see online version of this book). Because of the redundancy of the physiologic mechanisms for control of body weight, it seems likely that polypharmacy targeting multiple pathways will be needed to achieve success. 

The information from the oriented glasses is not redundant since it suggests in broad terms the different origins of the diffuse peaks in the scattering curve. Those which are weighted... 

The decision maker compares two hypothetical alternatives that differ in two attribute values only. One alternative performs best on the first and worst on the second objective and the other vice versa. The decision maker chooses the preferred alternative thus deciding on which objective is more important. Subsequently, one alternative s performance is modified until the decision maker is indifferent between both alternatives. While only n-1 evaluations are required redundant comparisons allow consistency checks on the weights obtained. 

The normalization projects all colors onto the plane at X + Y + Z = 1. Therefore, the third coordinate is redundant and we have to only specify the coordinates x and y. The third coordinate is then given by = 1 — x — y. Since the weights as defined by the standard observer are all positive, the coordinates x, y. and will also be positive. Owing to the constraint x + y + = 1, they will all be smaller than one. Instead of specifying a color by the triplet X, Y, and Z, we can also specify the color by the chromaticity coordinates x and y as well as the absolute luminance Y. The absolute coordinates X and Z are then given as (Poynton 2003)... 

These contributions represent the overall correlations with each canonical feature. Again we find factor patterns which are not very pronounced. The extraction and the redundancy measures are reported in Tab. 5-9. From the total values of the variance explained we see that both sets are well represented by their canonical variables. On the other hand the redundancy measure (90% or 72%) indicates that both feature sets may be of equal practical weight. 

Codon positions Selective weighting of first, second, and third codon positions in translated genes, because of redundancy of genetic code. A general rule is that third-codon positions are under less selective constraint than first and second and, as such, are more... 

Certainly it is the case that many representations are influenced by more than one form of similarity between concepts and spatial representations. Isotypes, for instance, are a form of bar graphs in which the bars are made of multiple icons of a commodity, such as barrels of oil (see Neurath, 1936, and Tversky, this volume). Within an isotype, the icons are a uniform size, and represent a uniform quantity. A bar composed of a large number of icons (relative to another bar) conveys more redundantly via at least two constraints. More oil barrows, for instance, communicate more oil via iconicity, and the greater vertical extent of the bar communicates more via the association between quantity and area. The interpretation of such a graphic could also be constrained by polarity, with the weighted continuum of big and small mapped to the continuum of more and less. 

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