Ratings costs

In the above equation, r can indicate the internal rate of return on an investment. Suppose that an investment in an energy-saving technology cost 100 and reduces energy costs by 20 per year indefinitely. The reduction in costs is comparable to net revenues received. The above equation can be modified as follows I equals R/r, where the values of I and R are specified and the value of r is computed. Hence 100 equals 20/r, and r equals 0.20, or 20 percent. The internal rate of return on the 100 investment is 20 percent per year. An investment is generally profitable when its internal rate of return exceeds the (interest rate) cost of obtaining credit. The investment is attractive when its internal rate of return exceeds the investor s hurdle rate, which may vary depending on the riskiness of the investment, and on the rate that can be earned from alternative uses of the investment funds. 

Where production in new premises is to be phased with peak usage only being attained after a period of years it is important to consider this during initial discussions with the relevant water authority when negotiating unit rate costs. See Figures 4.9-4.17. 

The results of the computer calculation are shown in the next two pages. (The program was altered to produce only a short output, omitting the mole fractions.) It is apparent that the number of iterations to the converged solution, 80, is large. The time of solution on an IBM 704 computer was 10.3 min., which when roughly translated into operation on a more modern machine at prevailing industrial rates costs about... 

The minimum acceptable rate of return (MARK) for a venture depends on a number of factors such as interest rate, cost of capital, availability of capital, degree of risk, economic project life, and other competing projects. Management will a(bust the MARK depending on any of the above factors to screen out the more attractive ventures. When a company invests in a venture, the investment must earn more than the cost of capital and should be able to pay dividends. 

TABLE 8.13 Tube Pressure Rating Cost Factors... 

Source of funds Rate — cost (%) Proportion of total (%) Product = cost component... 

Option Capacity Steam Rate Feed Rate Feed Rate Cost Issues... 

The data can now be represented more conveniently in a triangular diagram, as in Fig. 12-2. This plot shows the approximate limiting solubility boundaries for polyfmethyl methacrylate). The boundary region separates efficient from poor solvents. The probable solubility parameters of the solute polymer will be at the heart of the solubility region. The boundaries are often of greater interest than the central region of such loops because considerations of evaporation rates, costs, and other properties may also influence the choice of solvents. 

The selection or design of a heal exchanger depends on several factors such as the heat transfer rate, cost, pressure drop, size, weight, construction type, materials, and operating environment. 

Pure epoxy resins, so-called basic resins, are unsuited to building applications because of their high viscosity. Modifications are necessary to achieve the required viscosity, wettability, carbonate resistance, curing rate, cost reduction and numerous other properties. However, the modifiers must be chosen so as not to impair the other valuable attributes of the epoxy resins. For example volatile solvents are unsuitable for thick coatings, because any solvent retained in the cured system will reduce the mechanical and thermal properties and the corrosion resistance. The specific property needs for a particular application may be tailored to each system to maximise the remarkable potential of epoxy resins (Dow Chemical Company, undated c). 

Bioavailability Chemical stability Crystallinity Dissolution rate Cost... 

Various PAGs have been synthesized specifically for use in chemical amplification resists, reflecting their important impact on lithographic performance (Fig. 7) [13,30]. The choice of PAG depends on a number of factors such as the nature of radiation, quantum efficiency of acid generation, solubility, miscibility with resin, thermal and hydrolytic stability, plasticization effect, toxicity, strength and size of generated acid, impact on dissolution rates, cost, etc. In... 

Employee Hours Lost (4th quarter) x Average Loaded Labor Rate = Cost 400 X 30.00 = 12,000... 

Corporations tend to see stress as an individual problem due to an employee s lifestyle, psychological makeup, and personality. Workers view stress as result of excessive demands, poor supervision, or conflicting demands. However it is viewed, stress is a serious problem in the modem workplace. Stress-related medical bills and absentee rates cost employers about 150 billion annually (Smith, S.L. Combating Stress, Occupational Hazards, March 1994). Workers who must take time off work because of stress, anxiety, or a related disorder will be off the job for about 20 days. Over 290 billion dollars is spent in the U.S. economy every year relating to compensation claims from on-the-job stress, health insurance, low-productivity, and disability (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). 

TABLE IV Mass Flow Rate, Temperature, Pressure, Exergy Flow Rates, Cost Per Exergy Unit, and Cost Flow Rate for Each Stream in the Base-Case Design of the Cogeneration System... 

High barrier polymers, such as polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyester, acid copolymers and ionomers have been proposed and are under evaluation as a replacement for PE. However, they present some drawbacks in terms of scalability and/or mechanical properties and/or outgassing rates. Cost of these polymers is also generally higher. 

In general, the easiest to access is information about manufacturer equipment specifications, age and statistical failure rates, costs of repair and replacement. 

The discount rate should be equal to the actual rate of interest on long-term loans in the capital market or the average interest rate (cost of capital) paid by the borrower. The discount rate should basically reflect the opportunity cost of capital, which corresponds to the rate of return an investor would obtain if the funds were invested elsewhere with a similar level of risk. The discount rate therefore represents the minimum rate of return acceptable to the investor. When comparing alternative investmenis with different perceived risks, the discount rate can be increased for the more risky project investment so that a comparison can be made between the alternatives. 

Because curbside pickup achieves the highest recovery rates, cost effectiveness of recycling was evaluated using curbside collection. The following variables affect curbside or drop-off collection costs ... 

Interest rate Cost of closure Cost of replacement... 

The sheet forming of dry or commingled (reinforcement and matrix fibers mixed in a same tow) composite materials can be considered as a solution for the industrial scale manufacture of complex shape composite parts as this process shows a good production rate/cost ratio. Numerical approaches have been used to determine the process parameters to be used [23-24], However, few of these studies dealt with complex shape parts for which specific defects such as tow buckles may appear [25]. The appearance of such defects may prevent the qualification of the part and indicate the limit of the reinforcement material behavior xmder a single or a combination of deformation modes. It is therefore important to quantify and understand the mechanisms controlling the appearance of defects so that the munerical tools developed in the literature for complex shape forming [26]can simulate them. 

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