Product apparatus design

Formulary (NF) XIV and USP XVIII and XIX (8) standardized both the apparatus design and the conditions of operation for given products. With these tests, comparable results could be obtained with the same apparatus design, even when the apparatus was produced by different equipment manufacturers. 

Thermal decompositions (pyrolyses) and catalysed reactions in the vapour phase are widely used large-scale industrial techniques. These vapour phase reactions often lead to more economic conversions than the smaller batchwise laboratory methods, because relatively inexpensive catalyst preparations (compared to the often expensive reagents required in laboratory procedures) may be used, and because the technique lends itself to automated continuous production. In undergraduate laboratory courses the technique has not achieved widespread use. The discussion below of the various apparatus designs, to meet a range of experimental conditions, may be regarded as an introduction to this topic. 

While many publications in the field of heat-integrated processes focus on specific processes such as dehydrogenation of paraffins or hydrogen production [3-5], this chapter is more focused on general conceptual trends in process and apparatus design. 

Steam distillation may be conducted using apparatus designed either for internal or external steam generation. Using internally-generated steam, 2.5 L of distillate was collected. The last 500 mL contained less than 1 g of product. 

Sodium hypochlorite is also manufactured by the electrolysis of sodium-chloride solution without a diaphragm (p. 97), the solution being less concentrated than that prepared by the chlorine process from sodium hydroxide, but free from the excess of alkali characteristic of that prepared by the older method.2 The process is carried out either in the apparatus designed by Kellner,3 or in that of Haas-Oettel,4 sodium chlorate being a by-product (v. infra). It is noteworthy that electrolysis of sodium-chloride solution with an alternating current also produces sodium hypochlorite.5... 

The method of the low temperature carbonisation of the carboniferous materials is known since long time, whereas different apparatus technical solutions have been used. Many of these traditional carbonisation apparatus producing variating quality end products with too high bum off and does not meet the new environmental standards. For the innovative TDT-3R" apparatus design the following main technical and engineering considerations have been taken for value added conversation of the biomass ... 

In a long and detailed paper on CO/H2 and CO2/H2 reactions on polycrystalline Rh, Sexton and Somorjai used a UHV-AES apparatus designed to allow sample scrutiny at low pressure yet to permit high-pressure (700 torr) reactions. They established good correlation of turn-over numbers between their results and results obtained on supported catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch reaction. AES established that C was present on reactive surfaces yet this C (1 to 2 monolayers) did not influence rates of reaction or product distribution for high-pressure runs. It is however interesting to note that the most important influences on catalysis reported in this paper were found to be subsurface C and O, neither detectable by AES. The reactions studied at 250—300 °C showed that CO/H2 produced mainly Ci but also some C2, C3, and C4 hydrocarbons, whereas CO2/H2 produced CH4 exclusively. 

Figure 7. Primary explosive apparatus designed at Picatinny Arsenal. The product can be remotely made, filter, washed, air dried, sieved, and poured into containers ifit is made in a fiee-flowing form which easily drops by gravity from one stage to another.

Addition funnel pressure reactor, 201 Adjustable pressure relief valve, 200 Aerial oxidation, 64 Aerobic product transfer, 193 Aerosol pressure vessel, 198 Air-sensitive materials decomposition, 147 HPLC analysis, 24 recovering, 193 synthesis and handling, 34 Alkyne electron density, 287 Alkyne ligand, 282 Alkyne it donor orbitals, 287 Alkyne levels, 285 Ambient pressure flow cell, 238-244 Ammonia synthesis, 182 Anaerobic column chromatography, 17-18/ Anaerobic transfer, 144 Anionic polymerization, 182 Apparatus design philosophy, 117 Arc lamp... 

The product collection efiiciency was improved to > 90% by altering the decompression system so that the product was collected after the first decompression valve at a pressure of ca. 0.5 MPa rather than after a two-stage decompression at a pressure of 0.1 MPa. A diagram of the apparatus design is shown in Figure 7. 

Process development [1.108], adaption of separation process to the separation problem by fixing design and internals of the separation apparatus (design of a separation unit in lab and pilot scale, scale up to production unit size)... 

In order to improve the protocol and to deuterate higher amounts of unsaturated material, we designed the deuterium production apparatus shown in Figure 13 that was then built in a Pyrex glass suitable to resist moderate pressure (as the glass used for bottles in Parr hydrogenator). 

Figure 13. Apparatus designed by us for in situ production of deuterium (or hydrogen).

Apparatus Design Features with an Influence on Product Quality... 

The design of central as well as peripheral elements of spray fluidized bed equipment has been discussed in considerable detail by Jacob (2007), so that it is sufficient to give here a brief summary before focusing on some special aspects of apparatus design with high relevance for product quality. 

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