Particles mutagenicity

FIGURE 10.22 Direct mutagenicity of ambient particles (mutagen density, rev m-3, TA98, —S9) as a function of ambient concentrations of 2-nitropyrene, a directly mutagenic product of a gas-phase atmospheric reaction initiated by OH radical attack on pyrene. Samples collected at six sites in California with different types of emissions ( ) Glendora (O) Yuba City ( ) Concord ( ) Mammoth Lakes ( a ) Oildale ( ) Reseda (see Fig. 10.22) (adapted from Atkinson et al., 1988a). 

Baranski B, Palus J, Rogaczewska T, et al. 1992. Correlation between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentration and airborne particle mutagenicity in the rubber factory. Pol J Occup Med Environ Health 5(4) 357-362. 

Organic compormds constitirte abont 25-30 percent of the fine aerosol mass (the mass contained in particles smaller than 2.5 pm diameter) in trrban areas. They are of considerable interest becanse some of them, such as PAHs, are either suspected carcinogens or known mutagens. Still, little headway has been made... 

Nakagawa R, S Kitamori, K Horikawa, K Nakashima, H Tokiwa (1983) Identification of dinitropyrenes in diesel-exhaust particles. Their probable presence as the major mutagens. Mutation Res 124 201-211. 

Salmeen IT, AM Pero, R Zator, D Schuetzle, TL Riley (1984) Ames assay chromatograms and the identification of mutagens in diesel particle extracts. Environ Sci Technol 18 375-382. 

Iliakis G. 1984. The mutagenicity of alpha particles in ehrlich ascites tumor cells. Radiat Res 99 52-58. 

Kaden, D. A., Thilly, W. G., Mutagenic Activity of Fossil Fuel Combustion Products, Conference on Carbonaceous Particles in the Atmosphere, T. Novakov, ed., University of California, Berkeley, 193, 1978. 

Using in vivo techniques, natural and synthetic fibrous materials have been shown to induce fibrosis and carcinogenic responses that were directly related to dose, if the materials were placed on the target tissues. Chrysotile appeared to be more biologically active than the other UICC asbestos samples or fibrous glass, with particle size and shape having some influence on the response. In vitro experiments indicate that fibers can be cytotoxic and possibly mutagenic, increase the secretory activity of fibroblasts, and possibly initiate an immune cascade. 

EPA. 1990f. Unvented kerosene heater emissions from mobile homes Studies on indoor air particles, semi-volatile organics, carbon monoxide, and mutagenicity. Research Triangle Park, NC U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory. Report no. EPA/600/D-90/122. 

Mumford JL, Williams RW, Walsh DB, et al. 1991. Indoor air pollutants from unvented kerosene heater emissions in mobile homes Studies on particles, semivolatile organics, carbon monoxide, and mutagenicity. Environ Sci Technol 25(10) 1732-1738. 

Sexton K, Webber LM, Hayward SB, et al. 1986. Characterization of particle composition, organic vapor constituents, and mutagenicity of indoor air pollutant emissions. Environment International 12 351-362. 

Yamanaka S, Maruoka S. 1984. Mutagenicity of the extract recovered from airborne particles outside and inside a home with an unvented kerosine heater. Atmos Environ 18(7) 1485-1487. 

Gundel, L. A., J. M. Daisey, L. R. F. de Carvalho, N. Y. Kado, and D. Schuetzle, Polar Organic Matter in Airborne Particles Chemical Characterization and Mutagenic Activity, Environ. Sci. Technol., 27, 2112-2119 (1993). 

Clearly, a sound evaluation of the total mutagenic/carcinogenic potencies of a complex mixture of POM emissions (e.g., diesel exhaust) should include not only the PEFs of the primary particle- and vapor-phase PAHs and PACs but also those of the mutagens formed in atmospheric reactions of precursor PAHs (see, for example, Arey et al. (1992), Lewtas (1993b), Atkinson and Arey (1994), Nielsen et al. (1996), Arey (1998a), and Section F). For examples of such formal scientific health risk assessments prepared by the State of California Air Resources Board and Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, see Benzo[ ]pyrene as a Toxic Air Contaminant (CARB, 1994) and Identification of Diesel Exhaust as a Toxic Air Contaminant (CARB, 1998). 

This modification has been applied in a variety of studies, including the mutagenic activity of fine ambient air particles as a function of particle size (Kado et... 

Until the early to mid-1980s, research on the mutagenicity of respirable POM focused almost exclusively on the particulate phase. Another aspect of tropospheric chemistry with significant health implications is the application of the Ames bacterial assay (with or without the microsuspension modification) to the detection and identification of mutagenic vapor-phase PAHs and PACs. For example, Harger and co-workers (1992) reported that the mutagenicities of concurrently collected samples of vapor-phase and particle-phase organics in southern California (Claremont, California) ambient air were comparable. 

Recently, Enya and co-workers (1997) identified another very powerful type of direct mutagen, the nitro-PAH ketone 3-nitrobenzanthrone (3-nitro-7/f-benz[<7e]anthracen-7-one, XXIV), in extracts of particles from ambient air and diesel exhaust ... 

Another powerful direct mutagen identified in ambient particulate matter collected in Santiago, Chile, is 3,6-dinitrobenzo[a]pyrene. Although its concentration is low (0.002 ng m-3 of air), its specific direct activities on strains TA98 and YG1024 ( —S9 mix) are high, 400,000 and 4,800,00 rev /rg-1, respectively (Sera et al, 1991). For a discussion of polar forms of BaP in ambient particles, see Ismail et al. (1998). 

As with the Salmonella reversion assay, this shortterm test is conducted both without (— PMS) and with metabolic activation produced by addition of post-mitochondrial supernatant containing rat liver enzymes ( + PMS). These terms are equivalent to — S9 and + S9 in the Ames reversion assay we use the latter designation for both types of bacterial assays. A more sensitive micro-forward mutation bioassay using this TM677 strain to determine the mutagenicity of indoor air particles, including ETS and wood smoke, is described by Lewtas et al. (1987). 

Dibenzo[a,/]pyrene, a potent mutagen in the MCL-5 assay, was not detected in this analysis of SRM 1649. However, this 6-ring PAH XXIX was identified (but not quantified) by comparison to an authentic standard by Allen and co-workers (1998) in their analysis of size-segregated aerosols in urban Boston ambient air. Furthermore, in their August 1994 study of biologically active, particle-associated PAHs in ambient Riverside, California, Atkinson and Arey (1997) measured concentrations of 18, 20, and 15 pg m-3 of this compound for one daytime and two nighttime sampling events, respectively. These concentrations were 40-50% of the BaP concentrations in the same aerosol samples. 

---