Organic Some Special Cases

These are numbered with CO2H=1 when named as -oic acids or by trivial names. The three trivial names of acids beginning wdth capr- should be superseded by the systematic names (caproic=hexanoic, caprylic=octanoic, capric=decanoic). For acids named by the carboxylic acid method, e.g. heptane-1,4,7-tricarboxylic acid or 3-carboxypropylammonium chloride, the CO2H group is treated by the normal methods for suffixes and prefixes (see p. 48). 

Formation of alcohol names must be carried out systematically. Propan-2-ol is correct isopropanol is incorrect because there is no parent isopropane from which this name can be derived isopropyl alcohol is a correct alternative, because there is a radical isopropyl CHMe2— (sodium isopropoxide is similarly correct). Moreover, though there is isobutane, isobutanol is ambiguous whereas isobutyl alcohol is specific (from the radical CHMc2 CH2—). 

Amine salts, being derivatives of quadricovalent nitrogen, should systematically be named as -onium 

Care must be taken with amine salts of dibasic acids e.g., Ph KHJHSOj is anilinium hydrogen sulphate, (Ph NHJ)2SO is dianilinium sulphate, whereas aniline sulphate or anilinium sulphate might refer to either salt. 

Quaternary salts have systematic names such as triethylmethylammonium chloride, - - - -trimethyl-anilinium bromide, 1-methylquinolinium picrate. Quaternary salts are, however, often handled by an older method, as metho-salts, 6.., triethylamine methochloride, quinoline methopicrate this older method should not normally be used, though it is useful for compounds of uncertain composition (cf. hydrochloride, eic.). Salts derived by addition of Me2S04 are named after the pattern of 1-methylpyrid-inium methyl sulphate or naphthalene-l,6-diamine monomethosulphate, the trivial name methosulphate 

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Some special cases of the reaction in equation (9.2) are listed in Table 9.7. In each case, S represents the adsorbent structure not involved directly in the adsorption-desorption reaction. Equation (9.2) can be generalised (Sposito, 1983) to permit more than lmol of the species SRZsR(s) to react, to replace Mm+ by a metal-hydroxy polymer (e.g. Al OH) ), or to replace Ll by a polyanion (e.g. fulvic acid). Note that the adsorbent can be either inorganic or organic (see the first two reactions in Table 9.7). 

The restriction of the theoretical treatment of optical rotations of cyclopropanes I to the basis of equations 2, 3 and 5 has several implications with regard to the descriptions of molecules on the conformational level. A discussion of some special cases shall demonstrate that the success of equation 2 does not mean that for the theoretical treatment of optical rotations only the configurational level for representing molecules is relevant. On the contrary, an adequate description of optical rotations of organic compounds must take the various conformations of the compounds and the conformer equilibria explicitly into account The very point is that, due to favorable conformational equilibria, often rotation contributions from conformational effects are small or cancel (to a large extent). 

In some special cases, hydrolysis of carboxylic and carbonic acid derivatives in homogeneous solution may also be catalyzed by metal ions (see Chapter 3, this volume). The effects of dissolved organic matter on hydrolysis rates seems, however, to be of secondary importance (Macalady et al., 1989). 

A systematic study of urinary or blood organic acids has not yet been made with this method, which can be improved through combination with chromatography (B12). Electrophoresis has, however, been used for some special cases, as for the separation of lactic and P-hydroxybutyric acids, which are difficult to separate by paper chromatography (07). 

Most studies of catalysis in ionic liquids have focused on issues of increased selectivity and particularly the easy separation of product from the catalyst and catalyst recycling via use of a biphase. In some cases, the reaction may occur in a biphase in others, the biphase is only used for product separation. In some special cases, the second phase is exclusively product, due to insolubility of the organic products in the ionic liquid, and is easily separated by decantation, allowing the recovered ionic catalytic solution to be reused. Of course, use of an organic solvent for extraction does reduce some of the potential green benefits of the ionic liquid approach. More recently, SCCO2 has been used to extract the products. Alternatively, volatile products can be separated from the ionic liquid and catalyst by distillation. 

Whereas gas-gas equilibria had been a curiosity of phase theory as lately as 10 years ago they have now proved to be as important as the classical types of gas-liquid and liquid-liquid equilibria. They are not at all restricted to some special cases but represent the normal type of two-phase equilibrium in systems of components that differ considerably in size, shape, volatility, and polarity, and consequently show a low mutual solubility even up to rather high temperatures. Thus, fluid systems where the phase-separation effects have to be attributed to the solubility of gas in a liquid (or of a liquid in a gas) at normal conditions of temperature and pressure will frequently exhibit gas-gas critical phenomena at higher temperatures some examples for binary mixtures of He, N2, CH4, CO2, etc. with organic liquids and liquid water are given in Sections 2 and 3.f... 

The successful establishment of nondestructive NAA as an analytical technique for the study of the elemental composition of biological materials promoted the evaluation of its feasibility for determining some elements in living subjects by in vivo NAA (Anderson et al. 1964). From this first demonstration, the technique rapidly evolved (Ellis 1990). Currently, it is possible to measure total-body H, N, O, Na, P, Cl, K, and Ca and to determine most of the same elements in parts of the body, such as a limb or an organ. In special cases, additional important elements such as I (in thyroid), Cd (in kidney), as well as Mn, Fe, and Cu have been reported. The results of the measurements are used in clinical studies of mineral metabolism, nutrition, body physiology, and alterations in composition from clinical or enviromnental causes and diseases such as osteoporosis. 

Reactions involving organic substances have some special features. Many of these substances are poorly soluble in aqueous solutions. Sometimes their solubilities can be raised by adding to the solution the salts of aromatic sulfonic acids with cations of the type [NHJ or alkali metal ions. These salts have a salting-in effect on poorly soluble organic substances. In many cases solutions in mixed or nonaque-ous solvents (e.g., methanol) are used. Suspensions of the organic substances in aqueous solutions are also useful for electrosynthesis. 

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