New laws

In 1938 a new law, the Federal Food, Dmg, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (18), which instituted several new and important practices, was enacted. Fkst, it clearly stated that, henceforth, the use of any uncertified coal-tar color in any food, dmg, or cosmetic shipped in interstate commerce was stricdy forbidden. This restriction appHed regardless of the inherent toxicity of the colorant. In effect, the colorants that could be used were limited, certification became mandatory, and governmental control was extended to the coloring of dmgs and cosmetics. Next, it created three categories of coal-tar colors ... 

Through the efforts of the Certified Color Industry and the FDA, a new law was formulated, the Color Additives Amendments of 1960 (PubHc Law 86-618) (21). The amendments provided a breathing speU by allowing the continued use of existing color additives pending the completion of... 

L/ IW Works. The basic copyright term for new law works is the life of the author plus 50 years after the author s death. In the case of joint authors, the life in question is that of the longest surviving author. 

The new law also establishes a clean fuel car pilot program in California, requiring the phase-in of tighter emission limits for 150,000 vehicles in model year 1996 and 300,000 by the model year 1999. These standards can be met with any combination of vehicle technology and cleaner fuels. The standards become even stricter in 2001. Other states can opt in to this program, though only through incentives, not sales or production mandates. 

The CAAA90 offers a comprehensive plan for achieving significant reductions in emissions of hazardous air pollutants from major sources. The new law will improve EPA s ability to address this problem effectively and it will accelerate progress in controlling major toxic air pollutants. 

The new Clean Air Act will result in a permanent 10 million ton reduction in sulfur dioxide (SOj) emissions from 1980 levels. To achieve this, EPA will allocate allowances of one ton of sulfur dioxide in two phases, The first phase, effective January 1, 1995, requires 110 powerplants to reduce their emissions to a level equivalent to the product of an emissions rate = (2,5 lbs of S02/mm Btu) x (the average mm Btu of their 1985-1987 fuel use). Plants that use certain control technologies to meet their Phase 1 reduction requirements may receive a two year extension of compliance until 1997. The new law also allows for a special allocation of 200,000 annual allowances per year each of the 5 years of Phase 1 to powerplants in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. 

The new law allows utilities to trade allowances within their systems and/or buy or sell allowances to and from other affected sources. Each source must have sufficient allowances to cover its annual emissions. If not, the source is subject to a 2,000/ ton excess emissions fee and a requirement to offset the excess emissions in the following year. 

The new law also includes specific requirements for reducing emissions of nitrogen oxides, based on EPA regulations to be issued not later than mid-1992 for certain boilers and 1997 for all remaining boilers. 

Each permit issued to a facility will be for a fixed term of up to 5 years. The new law establishes a permit fee whereby the state collects a fee from the permitted facility to cover reasonable direct and indirect costs of the permitting program. 

The new law buUds on the market-based structure and requirements currently contained in EPA s regulations to phase out the production of substances that deplete the ozone layer. The law requires a complete phase-out of CFCs and halons with interim reductions and some related changes to the existing Montreal Protocol, revised in June 1990. 

In the United States, in particular, recent legislation has mandated sweeping improvements to urban air quality by limiting mobile source emissions and by promoting cleaner fuels. The new laws require commercial and government fleets to purchase a substantial number of vehicles powered by an alternative fuel, such as natural gas, propane, electricity, methanol or ethanol. However, natural gas is usually preferred because of its lower cost and lower emissions compared with the other available alternative gas or liquid fuels. Even when compared with electricity, it has been shown that the full fuel cycle emissions, including those from production, conversion, and transportation of the fuel, are lower for an NGV [2]. Natural gas vehicles offer other advantages as well. Where natural gas is abundantly available as a domestic resource, increased use... 

The new law is more specific than tlie original statute witli regard to remedies to be used at Superfund sites, public participation, and accomplislmicnt of cleanup activities. The most important part of SARA with respect to public participation is Title III. wliich addresses the important issues of community awareness and participation in the event of a chemical release. 

One feature of the new law is an SO, trading allowance program that encourages the use of market-based principles to reduce pollution. Utilities may trade allowances within their system and/or buy or sell allowances to and from other affected sources. For example, plants that emit SO, at a rate below 1.2 Ib/million Btu will be able to increase emissions by 20 percent between a baseline year and the year 2000. Also, bonus allowances will be distributed to accommodate growth by units in states with a statewide average below 0.8 Ib/million Btu. 

There is, however, a fatal objection to the theory of Boltzmann. At very low temperatures the oscillations will be small, and should conform to the theory. But the atomic heats, instead of approaching the limit 5 955 at low temperatures, diminish very rapidly, and in the case of diamond the specific heat is already inappreciable at the temperature of liquid air. A new point of view is therefore called for, and it is a priori very probable that this will consist of a replacement of the hypothesis of Equipartition of Energy adopted by Boltzmann. This supposition has been verified, and the new law of partition of energy derived... 

As soon as we start this journey into the atom, we encounter an extraordinary feature of our world. When scientists began to understand the composition of atoms in the early twentieth century (Section B), they expected to be able to use classical mechanics, the laws of motion proposed by Newton in the seventeenth century, to describe their structure. After all, classical mechanics had been tremendously successful for describing the motion of visible objects such as balls and planets. However, it soon became clear that classical mechanics fails when applied to electrons in atoms. New laws, which came to be known as quantum mechanics, had to be developed. 

The new law is intended to afford the public added protection to avoid the dangers inherent in the use of these new and more effective means of pest control. It places upon the manufacturer greater responsibility for furnishing the user specific information as to how the product shall-be used to be effective in controlling pests, and at the same time cause no damage to the user or his crops or animals. 

On September 19, 1791, Leblanc became the fourteenth inventor granted a patent under France s new laws. For the next two years, Leblanc struggled to get his factory going amid wartime shortages of sulfuric acid and capital. 

With his team organized, Haber began looking at the problem in its simplest form—at normal atmospheric pressure. After publishing some preliminary results, Haber met Walther Nernst at a scientific conference in Hamburg. Nernst, who was only four years older than Haber, had a pugnacious personality that made him quarrel with almost everyone in academia. Worried that Haber s work cast doubt on the validity of his new law of thermodynamics, Nernst publicly ridiculed Haber s highly erroneous data and told him scornfully to do his homework. ... 

Haber was slow to grasp the implications of the Nazis rise to power. As Germans boycotted Jewish businesses and Hitler s brownshirts removed Jewish students from university libraries and laboratories, the Nazis passed a law on April 7, 1933, to cleanse the civil service and universities of Jews. By this time, Haber s Kaiser Wilhelm Institute was financed by the government and its employees were treated as civil functionaries subject to the new law. Haber himself was exempt because of war work and seniority. Eager for a chemical warfare center, Nazi authorities singled out Haber s institute and ordered him to fire its Jews. At the same time, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society told Haber to somehow keep his important senior scientists. He had until May 2 to act. 

As a result of this new frame, the EU has published directives aimed at the protection of the river basins from a range of substances included in the priority lists [52, 53]. Moreover, before entering into force, the directives must be transposed into each of the member countries. Often, the adoption is done with the full text proposed by the EU, but adding extensions to accommodate the new law on national legal and economic framework. 

Although environmental legislation has been passed in the four Soviet states, as in Iran, the application and enforcement of these new laws is often suspect. Poverty in the Caspian region means that corruption is rampant, and since oil and gas production are the driving forces behind the growth of the region s economies, the enforcement of... 

Consumers can also take a more aggressive response, which might be to demand restitution or to try and change the market structure by campaigning for new laws, guidelines, or regulatory systems. Both of these responses can critically wound an industry. In Australia, tainted metwurst caused several known deaths and resulted in an economic boycott of the entire metwurst industry. Now, many years after the fact, the industry is still decimated. 

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