Lysine cereal

A diet based exclusively on cereals only provides about 50% of the protein requirement for growing infants. The most limiting amino acid in all cereals is lysine (Chapter 17). The second limiting amino acid for maize is tryptophan, whereas it is threonine in the rest of cereals. The high-lysine cereal types of maize, sorghum, and barley possess better nutritional value due to improved protein quality or essential amino acid balance (Anonymous, 1988, Balaravi et al. 1976). 

Explain why the development of high-lysine cereals can partially solve protein malnutrition problems around the world Which cereals have genotypes that contain high-protein quality ... 

What are the potential advantages of using waxy or high-lysine cereals in monogastric and ruminant nutrition ... 

Pea.nuts, The proteins of peanuts are low in lysine, threonine, cystine plus methionine, and tryptophan when compared to the amino acid requirements for children but meet the requirements for adults (see Table 3). Peanut flour can be used to increase the nutritive value of cereals such as cornmeal but further improvement is noted by the addition of lysine (71). The trypsin inhibitor content of raw peanuts is about one-fifth that of raw soybeans, but this concentration is sufficient to cause hypertrophy (enlargement) of the pancreas in rats. The inhibitors of peanuts are largely inactivated by moist heat treatment (48). As for cottonseed, peanuts are prone to contamination by aflatoxin. FDA regulations limit aflatoxin levels of peanuts and meals to 100 ppb for breeding beef catde, breeding swine, or poultry 200 ppb for finishing swine 300 ppb for finishing beef catde 20 ppb for immature animals and dairy animals and 20 ppb for humans. 

Biotin can be synthesized by the human colon flora. The question to which extent this production contributes to covering the host-organism s requirements is, however, subject to discussion. In most foods of animal origin as well as in cereals, biotin prevails in the protein (= enzyme)-bound form as e-N-biotinyl-L-lysine (= biocytin). Brewer s yeast, liver, soya beans, and peanuts number among the biotin rich foods [1]. 

The grain or pulse forms of legumes have a high total protein content (20-26%) and can therefore be used as a natural supplement to cereals. Pulses are normally deficient in the essential amino acids methionine and cystine but contain enough lysine, whereas cereals are deficient in lysine but contain enough methionine and cystine. 

Watson, S.A. and Yahl, K.R. 1967. Comparision of wet-milling properties of opaque-2 high-lysine com and normal com. Cereal Chem. 44, 488-498. 

Characteristically, legume seeds are rich in protein and contain intermediate to high levels of lysine and threonine which are important in balancing the deficiencies of these essential amino acids in cereal diets. Certain legume proteins, such as soybean, also exhibit strong functional properties, especially water solubility, water and fat binding and emulsification. Thus soybean flours, protein concentrates and isolates have been used widely as nutritional supplements and functional ingredients in foods. 

The legumes have a high lysine content (7,32), which makes them an excellent complement to cereal proteins. Protein contents of pumpkin breads were 5,0, 5,6, 6,2 and 6,7% for loaves that had 0, 20, 35 and 50% Navy bean flour, respectively. 

Vegetarians need to be aware of the amino acids present in their diet, since most animal proteins contain amino acids approximately in proportion to those required by humans but this is not true for all vegetable proteins. This problem is particularly severe for those dependent on a single source of plant protein, for example corn or rice, as is frequently the case in poorer parts of the world. In general, legumes are low in methionine while cereals are low in lysine. Some strains of com now contain lysine, but the best advice to vegetarians is to include as wide a variety of plants as possible in their diet (Chapter 15). 

The nutritional value of proteins (see p. 360) is decisively dependent on their essential amino acid content. Vegetable proteins—e.g., those from cereals—are low in lysine and methionine, while animal proteins contain all the amino acids in balanced proportions. As mentioned earlier, however, there are also plants that provide high-value protein. These include the soy bean, one of the plants that is supplied with NH3 by symbiotic N2 fixers (A). 

Potatoes are an excellent source of carbohydrates and contain significant amounts ofphosphorus, potassium, calcium, and vitamins, especially vitamin C. Potato protein content, at over 10%, is relatively close to that of wheat flour (11%) also, thanks to their lysine, methionine, cystine and cysteine contents, potatoes are a valuable supplement to cereal proteins. For instance, potatoes provide a significant source of proteins (10-15% of total requirements), a major source of vitamin C, an important source of energy, and also minerals like iron and other vitamins such as thiamin, nicotinic acid, riboflavin, and pro-vitamin A (p carotene) (Salunkhe and Kadam, 1991). 

Cold cereal is often fortified with all sorts of vitamins and minerals but is deficient in the amino acid lysine. How might this deficiency be compensated for in a breakfast meal ... 

L-Lysine. Hd io3 Fermentation (AM) First limiting amino acid for cereals... 

Nutritive value of foods and feedstuffs depends to a large degree on protein level and quality, i.e., the relative amounts of the component amino acids compared to the requirements of the animal for various metabolic functions. The cereal grains are notoriously low in certain essential amino acids. Usually lysine is the first or second limiting amino acid. The grain of rye (Secale cereale L.) exhibits an amino acid profile superior to that of other cereal grains, especially wheat (1,2,3,4,5). Despite this fact, lysine is still the first limiting amino acid in rye in most instances (6,7). 

Cereal proteins are only about 70 percent efficient for dietary replacement purposes. The reason is that cereal proteins are deficient in lysine, an essential amino acid for humans (see Amino Acid Synthesis in this section). Thus a diet based on one source of protein (e.g., corn) can lead to malnutrition. A partial solution to the problem has been the breeding of high-lysine corn. Other plant proteins, particularly those from pod seeds (e.g., peas and beans) are deficient in the sulfur-containing amino acids. A successful vegetarian diet will therefore be balanced in cereals and pod seeds. 

Egg protein is one of the best quality proteins and is considered to have a biological value of 100. It is widely used as a standard, and protein efficiency ratio (PER) values sometimes use egg white as a standard. Cereal proteins are generally deficient in lysine and threonine, as indicated in Table... 

Kwashiorkor is a type of malnutrition associated with insufficient protein intake, usually affecting children aged 1-4 years, although it can also occur in older children and adults. It is likely caused by a combination of factors (protein deficiency, energy and micronutrient deficiency). The absence of lysine in low-grade cereal proteins (used as a dietary mainstay in many underdeveloped countries) can lead to kwashiorkor. 

Furosine, a marker of the Maillard reaction product, is a valuable indicator of food protein quality. It is a marker for thermal treatment in foodstuffs and is directly related to the loss of lysine availability. IPC was employed to determine furosine content in beverages based on soy milk and cow milk supplemented with soy isoflavones [39]. Furosine was also analyzed in 60 commercial breakfast cereals to assess their protein nutritional values. The higher the protein content in the formulation, the higher the furosine levels [40]. A simple IPC technique that uses 1-octanesulfonic acid as the IPR allowed the selective determination of histamine levels in fermented food [41]. 

Delgado-Andrade, C., Rufian-Henares, J.A., and Morales, F.J. Lysine availability is diminished in commercial fibre-enriched breakfast cereals. Food Chem. 2007, 100, 725-731. 

---