Lead-acid batteries types

Figure 4.11 shows a three-cell monobloc valve-regulated lead-acid battery and a comparison of other lead-acid battery types with an outlook on possible future design. 

In Figure 1, the cutaway view of the automotive battery shows the components used in its constmction. An industrial motive power battery, shown in Figure 2 (2), is the type used for lift tmcks, trains, and mine haulage. Both types of batteries have the standard free electrolyte systems and operate only in the vertical position. Although a tubular positive lead—acid battery is shown for industrial appHcations, the dat plate battery constmction (Fig. 1) is also used in a comparable size. 

The tubular positive plate uses rigid, porous fiber glass tubes covered with a perforated plastic foil as the active material retainer (Fig. 2). Dry lead oxide, PbO, and red lead, Pb O, are typically shaken into the tubes which are threaded over the grid spines. The open end is then sealed by a polyethylene bar. Patents describe a procedure for making a type of tube for the tubular positive plate (90) and a method for filling tubular plates of lead—acid batteries (91). Tubular positive plates are pickled by soaking in a sulfate solution and are then cured. Some proceed directiy to formation and do not requite the curing procedure. 

Whereas automotive batteries have the majority of the market, other types of lead—acid batteries, such as sealed and small maintenance-free varieties, are making inroads into various appHcations. The automotive battery s operating environment has changed substantially in the last 10 years. Underhood temperature has risen and electrical loads have increased. This trend is expected to continue as car manufacturers reevaluate thek design strategies and objectives. Battery design is changing to meet these needs. 

Batteries, both primary and secondary, have become very big business indeed, which moreover is growing rapidly. Salkind (1998) in a concise overview of the entire domain of battery types and technologies, estimates that in 1996, the world market in the two types of battery combined totalled ss 33 billion dollars, and that the ratio of secondary to primary battery sales is steadily edging upwards. In spite of its poor charge density per unit mass, the lead-acid battery still accounts for more than a quarter of the total, because it costs so much less than its rivals and lasts well. 

Unlike the automobile-type battery that is quite portable, the stationaiy lead-acid batteries that provide uninterruptible power to hospitals and other important facilities are not. Some may weigh over several tons because of the much heavier grid structure and other features to extend life expectancy and improve deep discharge capabilities. 

Lead forms two types of chemical compounds lead (II), and lead (IV) compounds based on Pb24 and Pb4 ions, where those based on Pb2 ions are the more stable. The metal is oxidized even at room temperature to lead oxide (PbO) and also by water that contains oxygen and forms lead hydroxide (Pb(OH),). In the lead-acid battery, the (less stable) lead (IV) oxide (lead dioxide, Pb02), is of greatest importance. Beside these two, a number of oxides are observed in the battery that are mostly mixtures. A brief survey will now be given of those compounds that are of interest for lead-acid batteries. 

Lead About lead much literature is available due its technical application in the lead-acid-battery . Pure lead is very soft and has a poor mechanical stability. Therefore, often it is applied as a coating on a carrier or alloys are used, for example, with antimony ( type metal ). 

It has been a long time since the invention of the lead-acid battery, but it still represents the most important secondary chemical power source—both in number of types and diversity of application. The lead-acid battery has maintained its leading role for so many decades due to its competitive electrical characteristics and price and due to its adaptability to new applications. It is manufactured in a variety of sizes and designs, ranging from less than 1 to over 10 000 A h.206... 

Lead-acid batteries can be classified into three major types or categories, namely, automotive (SLI), stationary, and motive power (industrial). In addition, there are many special batteries that cannot be easily categorized as either of the above types. As these types of batteries are constructed with different materials and design to meet the requirements of their intended end uses, each requires a particular separator with specific material composition, mechanical design, and physical, chemical, and electrochemical properties that are tailored for the battery and its relevant specific uses. These batteries are generally available in flooded electrolyte or valve regulated (sealed) versions. In this section the types... 

The battery separator currently used by most flooded cell type lead-acid battery manufacturers are of the microporous PE type. It was invented in the late 1960s by W. R. Grace Co. The term... 

Cadmium-Nickel Oxide (Ni-Cd) Secondary Cells Besides lead-acid batteries, cadmium-nickel oxide cells represent the most popular type of rechargeable batteries [344]. The scheme of the cell is ... 

The world market for batteries of all types now exceeds 100 billion. Over half of this sum is accounted for by lead-acid batteries - mainly for vehicle starting, lighting and ignition (SL1), and industrial use including traction and standby power, with about one-third being devoted to primary cells and the remainder to alkaline rechargeable and specialist batteries. 

FIGURE 12.27 Cycle characteristics of seal-type lead-acid batteries (4 Ah) when graphitized VGCF-S are used as filler in the negative plate (discharge 0.75 A to 1.70 V/cell, charge 7.35 V (maximum 1.5 A)-6H). (From... 

Many types of rechargeable batteries have been developed as portable power sources for small electronic devices, such as watch, calculator, video camera, computer and so on. Lead-acid battery, Ni-Cd battery, Ni-Metal hydride battery, and lithium battery are well known and used in some portable electronic devices. Lithium batteries are the most attractive with regard to energy density or power density. Recently, a new rechargeable lithium battery, that is a so-called Lithium Ion Battery , was proposed by Sony Company [5]. In this battery, carbon materials... 

Another common storage battery is the lead-acid battery. The standard automobile battery is an example of a lead-acid battery. Most auto batteries of this type contain six cells that generate about 2 V each for a total output of 12 V. The anode of each cell consists of two or more grids of porous lead, and the cathode consists of lead grids filled with lead(IV) oxide. This type of battery probably should be called a lead-lead(IV) oxide battery, but the term lead-acid is commonly used because the battery s electrolyte is a solution of sulfuric acid. 

There are two types of electrodes, metal electrodes and porous electrodes. For instance, lithium-ion batteries possess porous electrodes (as shown in Fig. 1), while lead-acid batteries have metal electrodes. The selection between metal and porous electrodes depends on the chemistry and on the safety of the battery. Porous electrodes in a battery are usually very thin to reduce the internal resistance of the battery. They are typically made of small particles to reduce internal diffusion limitations and to provide a large... 

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