Kilowatts

Plutonium has assumed the position of dominant importance among the trasuranium elements because of its successful use as an explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons and the place which it holds as a key material in the development of industrial use of nuclear power. One kilogram is equivalent to about 22 million kilowatt hours of heat energy. The complete detonation of a kilogram of plutonium produces an explosion equal to about 20,000 tons of chemical explosive. 

The small cross-sectional area covered by a laser light beam coupled with the energy density in the beam leads to power levels reaching from milliwatts to many hundreds of kilowatts per square meter. 

However, the iadustry s popular terminology is the energy consumption expressed ia terms of kilowatt hours per ton of (Pq[) oi of NaOH An estimate of this value requires a knowledge of cell voltage, current efficiency, and the efficiency of the rectifier used to convert a-c power to d-c. The energy consumption for producing a ton of is... 

Table 25. Energy Consumption of Operating Cells, Kilowatt-Hours per Ton of Chlorine...

From the standpoint of commercialization of fuel ceU technologies, there are two challenges initial cost and reHable life. The initial selling price of the 200-kW PAFC power plant from IFC was about 3500/kW. A competitive price is projected to be about 1500/kW orless for the utiHty and commercial on-site markets. For transportation appHcations, cost is also a critical issue. The fuel ceU must compete with conventional mass-produced propulsion systems. Furthermore, it is not clear if the manufacturing cost per kilowatt of small fuel ceU systems can be lower than the cost of much larger units. The life of a fuel ceU stack must be five years minimum for utiHty appHcations, and reHable, maintenance-free operation must be achieved over this time period. The projection for the PAFC stack is a five year life, but reHable operation has yet to be demonstrated for this period. 

Inductor. The channel inductor assembly consists of a steel box or case that contains the inductor refractory and the inductor core and coil assembly. The channel is formed within the refractory. Inductor power ratings range from 25 kilowatts for low temperature metals to 5000 kilowatts for molten iron. Forced air is used to cool the lower power inductors, and water is generally used to cool inductors rated 500 kilowatts or more. 

A typical m el ter iastalled in a medium sized brass foundry contains 4500 kg of brass and its inductor is rated 500 kilowatts. Brass is an alloy containing copper and zinc. Zinc vaporizes at temperatures weU below the melting temperature of the alloy. The channel iaductor furnace s low bath temperature and relatively cool melt surface result in low metal loss and reduced environmental concerns. Large dmm furnaces have found use in brass and copper continuous casting installations. 

The remaining class depicted in Figure 2 is that of soHd-state devices, ie, transistors, various types of semiconductor diode amplifiers, etc. At frequencies below 1 GHz, generation of hundreds or even at the lower frequencies, kilowatts, is feasible by soHd state. Above 1 GHz power capabiHty of soHd-state sources drops. Development of efficient (- 50%) sources at about the 50 W level at S-band (2 GHz) has been demonstrated. It is reasonable to expect soHd-state sources to replace tubes for low frequency and low (<100 W) power appHcations (52). For high power or high frequency, however, tube sources should continue to prevail. 

Microwaves are also used for the rapid inactivation of brain enzymes in rodents (160). Microwave power at high levels of kilowatts is appHed by means of a waveguide appHcator to achieve a rapid sacrifice of the rodent. 

Funding for developing commercial waste disposal faciUties is to come from the waste generators. In the case of spent fuel disposal, a Nuclear Waste Fund is accumulating based on an assessment of one mill per kilowatt-hour of electricity. For low level wastes, surcharges on waste disposal and direct assessments of utiUties have been imposed. 

In the second method, the pump and the motor are coupled direcdy, and either power (in kilowatts) or the current, I, and voltage, U, ate measured at the motor terminals. To determine the power actually transmitted into a pump, the motor power factor (PF) and efficiency (Eff ) must be known. These values ate usually taken from the motor manufacturer s caUbration curves (17). 

Discharges initiate in the gap region between the electrodes and then spread into surface discharges at the surface of the dielectric layer. The bright surface discharges are on the order of a few mm in diameter and the power ranges from these lamps can be from a few watts to several kilowatts over a... 

The standard unit of measure for refrigeration capacity is known as the refrigeration ton. It represents the amount of heat that must be removed from a short ton (909 kg) of water to form ice ia 24 h. Its value is 3.51 kWt (12,000 Btu/h(= 12.7 MJ/h)). It is conventional to designate a kilowatt of refrigeration as a thermal kilowatt (kWt) to distiaguish it from the amount of electricity (kWe) required to produce the refrigeration. 

In contrast with electrorefining, there is a minimum cell voltage of ca 1.67 V, below which there is no appreciable current flow. Hence, the energy yield is only ca 0.3 kg of copper per kilowatt hour, as contrasted with about 3 kg/kWh for electrorefining. 

Atmospheres Newtons per square meter 101,325 Calories, Idlogram per second Kilowatts 4.185... 

Boiler horsepower Kilowatts 9.803 Circular mils Square inches 7.854 X 10- ... 

Equation (9-245) shows that in this particular case the fixed-capital cost per unit of input energy CpJW) must not exceed 160,000 (GJh" )" or 576 per kilowatt, to have a 1-year payback period if the heat pump is operational for 8000 h/year. For this case the corresponding value of y is about 0.12 for a heat pump with an operating life of 10 years purchased with money borrowed at a 10 percent rate of interest. 

When arriving at the performance of a pump, it is customary to calculate its power output, which is the product of (1) the total dynamic head and (2) the mass of liquid pumped in a given time. In SI units power is expressed in kilowatts horsepower is the conventional unit used in the United States. 

FIG. 10-28 Characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump operating at a constant speed of. 3450 r/min. To convert gallons per minute to cubic meters per hour, multiply hy 0.2271 to convert feet to meters, multiply hy 0..3048 to convert horsepower to kilowatts, multiply hy 0.746 and to convert inches to centimeters, multiply hy 2.54. 

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