Invertebrates identification

Gibb, J.O.T., Svendsen, C., Weeks, J.M. and Nicholson, J.K. (1997b) H-l NMR spectroscopic investigations of tissue metabolite biomarker response to Cu(II) exposure in terrestrial invertebrates identification of free histidine as a novel biomarker of exposure to copper in earthworms. Biomarkers, 2, 295-302. 

The literature contains numerous references to the use of MS/MS in the determination of new neuropeptides in identified cells of invertebrates (Bulau et al., 2004, for a recent example) and this technique is now being applied to in situ analysis of vertebrate tissues (Fournier et al., 2003). MS/MS is also used for studies of neuropeptide processing (Nilsson et al., 2001), pharmacokinetics of synthetic peptides (Mock et al., 2002), nonpeptide drug metabolism (Kamel et al., 2003), identification of peptides purified by immunoaffinity (Suresh Babu et al., 2004), and MALDI/MS/MS techniques adaptable to brain dialysis (Bogan and Agnes, 2004). 

The marine environment clearly holds an enormous amount of potential to provide new leads for the development of treatments for infectious disease and antimalarial compounds in particular. The identification of new structural classes active against the malaria parasite will provide new mechanisms of action and better treatments for resistant strains. Since most malaria-infected regions also possess coastal areas rich in diverse marine invertebrate life, marine natural products provide an opportunity for these areas to utilize endemic resources to combat this devastating disease. 

An MAA with a possible restricted geographic occurrence is mycosporine-glycine valine. This MAA was first described from a survey of Antarctic species and was initially observed only in consumer organisms (invertebrates and fish), not any of the sampled primary producers.107 Subsequent studies in the Antarctic have identified this MAA in the diatom Fragilariopsis cylindrus, the haptophyte Phaeocystis sp., and mixed assemblages of Southern Ocean phytoplankton.124 126 128 There have been a few tentative identifications of mycosporine-glycine valine in organisms from... 

Almost a decade before the term pheromone was coined, Roth and Willis (1952) conducted seminal experiments that characterized volatile and contact pheromones in cockroaches. Louis Roth s research integrated studies of endocrinology and behavior, and the influence of this approach was reflected in Barth s early articulation of the interplay between the endocrine system and sexual behavior. In later years cockroaches continued to serve as important models for invertebrate endocrinology (Scharrer, 1987 Tobe and Stay, 1985), but research on pheromones lagged, in part due to technical difficulties in sex pheromone identification. Below, we highlight some of the many issues yet to be resolved in the physiological and behavioral regulation of sex pheromone production and emission in cockroaches. 

Bidochka, M. J., and Khachatourians, G. G. (1990). Identification of Beauveria bassiana extracellular protease as a virulence factor in pathogenicity toward the migratory grasshopper, Melanophis sanguinipes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 56, 362-370. 

The following protocols can be used for the isolation and structural characterization of any natural bioactive peptides from the immune system of invertebrates. The different procedures that will be detailed below refer to the identification and primary structure determination of the Drosophila immune-induced peptides (19,20,23,27,30) and of bioactive peptides from the immune system of other Diptera (17,21,24,31). These approaches were also successfully used for the discovery of bioactive peptides from crustaceans, arachnids, and mollusks. These methods should be considered as a guideline and not as the exact procedure to follow (see Note 3). The suggested procedures will be reported following the normal order of execution, (1) induction of the immune response by an experimental infection, (2) collection of the immunocompetent cells (hemocytes), tissues (epithelia, trachea, salivary glands, etc.)... 

Brenner, R. J., Carlson, D. A., Rothe, L.M. and Paterson, R. S. (1993). Morphological and chemotaxonomic identification ofBlatella cockroaches (Blattaria Blattellidae) from Taiwan and selected Pacific basin locations. Invertebrate taxonomy, 7, 1205-1219. 

Ayuso, R., Reese, G., Arruda, L.K., Chapman, M.D., Lehrer, S.B. 2002b. Identification of IgE-binding epitopes in allergenic invertebrate tropomyosins Per a 7, Pen a 1 and Der p 10 with cockroach and shrimp-allergic sera. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 109(1) S94-S94. 

Systematists are generally willing to help with identification, but they are often backlogged with work and may not be able to do so in a timely manner. The task of identification then falls to the actual investigator. Several types of literature for the identification of invertebrates are as follows, with an example of each referenced. 

TABLE II Selected Identification Manuals for North American Invertebrates ... 

Over the years, research efforts in biomedical sciences from academia, industry, and government institutions have underpinned a wealth of detailed knowledge regarding metabolism and physiology in humans and vertebrates, and many TK models have been developed. A critical aspect for the development of such models is the identification of the specific enzymes involved in the metabolism of a particular compound. For vertebrates these enzymes are well characterized, at least in terms of structure, if not also in terms of function, but such detailed knowledge is not available for invertebrates. In humans, metabolic routes can be split into phase I, phase II, and renal excretion. However, the relatively recent characterization of transporters such as P-glycoprotein has introduced them in the system as phase 0 or phase III because they can transport the parent compound or the metabolite. Major metabolic routes include phase I enzymes responsible for initial oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis... 

Many of the studies on prostaglandins have been made using either a bioassay, immunoassay, sometimes with the enzyme cyclooxygenase, or using injected or added arachidonic acid or an eicosanoid, so the evidence for a prostaglandin is sometimes indirect. This has sometimes led to a mis-identification.1 0 Both GC—MS and LC—MS have been used for direct identification. Typically identifications are based upon mass spectra, tandem MS (MS/MS), UV spectra, and chromatographic behavior.134 Recent ESI—MS/MS linked to HPLC has provided detection over the range 0.5—50 pg and quantification from 2 to 100 pg.135 Eicosanoids in invertebrates, other than insects, have been reviewed recently.133... 

Neuroendocrine control of invertebrate development was first demonstrated by Kopec CL2) with neck ligation and brain extirpation-reimplantation studies using the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera Lymantriidae). His demonstration of a "pupation factor", origmating in the bi in, provided the impetus for identification of numerous invertebrate physiological processes controlled by peptide neurohormones (3.41 In insects, identified processes now number over thirty (5). Knowledge of these processes has provided for the development of bioassays used in the isolation of neuropeptides. Since 1975, over fo insect peptide neurohormones have been isolated and sequenced (5-81... 

The identification of the genetic defects and mutations that cause FAD has led to the generation of transgenic rodent AD models. Nowadays, mice are the most popular animal models for AD, although rat models are developed as well. Furthermore, invertebrate models of AD have been developed and are presented at the end of this section. 

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