Interpretation of study findings

Our interpretation of the finding from the study is that even within a single level of representation, i.e. sub-microscopic, some students were unable to translate between different modes of representation. In this case, there was evidence that students were unable to translate their verbal mode of understanding into the diagrammatic mode (or visual mode). If the translation between different modes within the same level is problematic, it would be very challenging when students are required to smoothly mentally move about and link all the three - the macro, the sub-microscopic and symbolic levels - of chemical phenomena. 

Overall, this study supports the existence of an eating disorder taxon. However, the evidence is not particularly strong. The consistency of the mixed-sample analyses is fairly high (acceptably low base rate variability), but the sample composition confounds the interpretation of these findings. To resolve this issue, the authors performed analyses in the student-only sample and found evidence of taxonicity, but some of these analyses were not consistent. Interestingly, the high base rate variability was mostly a problem for analyses using the empirical indicators, which consisted of only a few items and hence were probably less reliable than theoretical indicators. The observed inconsistency may be due to low reliability of the empirical indicators. 

This parallel determination consists of measuring plasma levels of the administered agent and its major metabolites either in animals that are part of the main study or in a separate set of animals (in parallel with the main study) that are dosed and evaluated to determine just these endpoints. The purpose of these determinations is both to allow a better interpretation of the findings of the study and to encourage the... 

The integrated risk assessment is the stepwise and holistic evaluation of non-clinical study results in conjunction with any other relevant information and should be scientifically based and individualized for an NCE. Such an assessment can contribute to the design of clinical investigations and the interpretation of their findings. 

There has also been much discussion of the interpretation of the finding of hepatocellular carcinomas and adenomas in mice in the NTP (1987) study. There was a higher than usual rate of these tumors in control female mice. Because 1,4-dichlorobenzene has not been demonstrated to be mutagenic in any of the microbial or mammalian systems tested, NTP (1987) has suggested that it may act as a tumor promoter by inducing DNA replication for tissue repair processes. As discussed previously, oral administration of... 

One way to circumvent such (unjustified) labeling is to try to prove a causal relationship between the maternal effects and those in offspring, thus trying to show that the latter ones are unspecific secondary consequences of the former ones. So for the sound interpretation of study results it is important to find a good balance between maternal and fetal effects. For example, if a 10% reduction in maternal net weight gain is accompanied by a comparable reduction in fetal weight, then this puts the fetal effects in the correct perspective and would not lead the experimenter to conclude that the compound is a (specific) developmental toxicant. On the other hand if in the same situation the number of fetal anomalies (in particular malformations) is increased, then this could most unlikely be explained as a consequence of maternal toxicity. 

Historical control data is an essential component of the study directors toolbox for interpreting reproductive and developmental toxicity data. Scientific judgment and expertise should be used to determine if historical control data is needed for interpretation of study data, which historical control data is appropriate, and how it should be used to support interpretation of a finding. This tool can be a valuable addition to a comprehensive assessment of the study data, which includes determining whether a dose-response is present and whether any statistically significant findings occurred. Sound data interpretation requires that the litter, not the fetus or pup, be used as the experimental unit in developmental and reproductive toxicity studies. For continuous data (e.g., fetal weight). 

What then, is the current evidence to support a role of norepinephrine in depression, such that manipulation of noradrenergic activity bears particular relevance to the successful treatment of mood disorders Interpretation of studies depends on the continually evolving conceptualizations of the roles of brain noradrenergic systems. A potentially useful way of thinking about the function of the norepinephrine in the brain can be derived from examining the neuroanatomy of the noradrenergic system. A summary of findings [primarily from rodents and primates) is as follows. 

The experimental search for free stable silicenium ions in solution seems to have finally succeeded, at least for triaryl-substituted species4,5. However, computational studies will continue to augment, to verify and to guide the interpretations of experimental findings, as well as to suggest new experiments for preparing other silicenium ions. Schleyer and coworkers, for instance, have recently explored a silicenium ion within a cage , namely... 

There are two components to evidence-based medicine and two related sets of responsibilities. The first component is clinical research. Clinical research is a scientific endeavor that provides evidence concerning potential therapeutic interventions. This book has focused on one particular therapeutic intervention, drug therapy. Once clinical trials have been conducted, the evidence obtained is published in clinical communications in journals. Everyone involved in clinical research has the responsibility to provide the best possible evidence in this manner. As noted throughout the book, this includes all aspects of clinical research study design, experimental methodology and clinical operations, analysis and interpretation, and also accurate and complete representation of study findings in clinical communications as discussed in Section 13.6. 

Several reference compounds have been explored in the OECD endocrine disrupters programme, phenobarital and propylthiouracil being the most frequently studied (O Connor et al. 2002, Mellert et al. 2003, Cooke et al. 2004, Cho et al. 2003). The interpretation of positive findings in the rat concerning inhibition of thyroid function (which has been frequently found) presents considerable difficulty and there are many cases where such findings in rats have been shown to be of no relevance for the human (Akhtar et al. 1996, Waritz et al. 1996, Capen 1998, Poirier et al. 1999). Many drugs that act on thyroid function in rats share a mechanism of action based the induction of microsomal enzymes, which in turn may enhance the biliary excretion of thyroid hormones (Vansell and Klaassen 2001). 

Toxicokinetics is defined as the generation of pharmacokinetic data, either as an integral component in the conduct of nonclinical toxicity studies or in specially designed supportive studies, in order to assess systemic exposure. These data may be used in the interpretation of toxicology findings and their relevance to clinical safety issues (ICH Guidance Toxicokinetics 1994). 

A declaration that each study subject to GLP regulations was performed in full compliance with GLPs or, if the study was not conducted in compliance with those regulations, a brief statement of the reason for the non-compliance and the sponsor s view on how such noncompliance might affect the interpretation of the findings. 

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