Combustion, internal energy

The compact cage molecules, octanitrocubane and tetranitro tetraazacubane and diazadinitro tetrahedrane, have molecular strain energy locked-in which is released along with the internal combustion energy when they explode. The strain energies in these molecules are high as demonstrated in Table 4 for the case of cubane. 

Power, Energy, and Drives. Centrifuges accomplish their function by subjecting fluids and soHds to centrifugal fields produced by rotation. Electric motors are the drive device most frequently used however, hydrauHc motors, internal combustion engines, and steam or air turbines are also used. One power equation appHes to all types of centrifuges and drive devices. 

Maintenance on gas trucks is also higher than with electric vehicles. About 5 percent annually of the initial cost applies to internal-combustion equipment, and about 2 percent annually to electric. A special feature on electric trucks with solid-state controls is the use of modules or circuit boards, which can be replaced as units and rebuilt at the factoiy. Typical maintenance costs for trucks operating five 8-h shifts per week are in the order of 3.15 per hour for gas vehicles and 1.78 per hour for electric ones. Under these conditions, energy costs are typically 9.3 cents per hour for gas trucks and 5.1 cents per hour for the electric units. 

When the automobile became preeminent in the early twentieth century, it did so with good reason. Wliether the energy to power a bicycle is anaerobic or aerobic in nature, it is still minuscule in comparison to what an automobile s internal combustion engine can deliver. In the United States, almost all subcompact cars are equipped with engines that can generate 100 or more horsepower (74,600 watts), and can sustain this output all day long. 

Just as an internal combustion engine requires fuel to do work, animals need fuel to power their body processes. Animals Cake in complex molecules as food and break them down to release the energy they contain. This process is called catabolism. Animals use the energy of catabolism to do work and to assemble complex molecules of their own from simple building blocks, a process called anabolism. The sum of anabolism and catabolism is metabolism, a broad term that includes all chemical reactions in the body. 

Cogeneration encompasses several distinct thermodynamic processes of simultaneous heat and power production. One utilizes air as a medium, another steam, a third employs heat rejected from a separate combustion process, such as an internal-combustion engine, and a fourth utilizes a thermochemical process such as found in a fuel cell. Although each process is distinct, they are often combined together to inaxiniize the energy production in a single thermodynamic system. 

Transportation accounts for about one-fourth of the primary energy consumption in the United States. And unlike other sectors of the economy that can easily switch to cleaner natural gas or electricity, automobiles, trucks, nonroad vehicles, and buses are powered by internal-combustion engines burning petroleum products that produce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. Efforts are under way to accelerate the introduction of electric, fuel-cell, and hybrid (electric and fuel) vehicles to replace sonic of these vehicles in both the retail marketplace and in commercial, government, public transit, and private fleets. These vehicles dramatically reduce harmful pollutants and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by as much as 50 percent or more compared to gasoline-powered vehicles. 

Flywheels are found in internal-combustion engines, where they damp out torque pulses caused by the periodic firing of cylinders. In this application, energy is stored veiy briefly before it is used— for less than one revolution of the wheel itself... 

The conventional fuels used for transit applications include gasoline, diesel fuel, and electricity. Alternatives to these fuels have been sought to reduce energy consumption, pollutant emissions, greenhouse gas emissions, and use of imported fuels. The conventional fuels for internal-combustion engines are the most energy-dense fuels petroleum and diesel fuel. 

Large-scale crude oil exploitation began in the late nineteenth century. Internal combustion engines, which make use of the heat and kinetic energy of controlled explosions in a combustion chamber, were developed at approximately the same time. The pioneers in this field were Nikolaus Otto and Gottleib Daimler. These devices were rapidly adapted to military purposes. Small internal-combustion motors were used to drive dynamos to provide electric power to fortifications in Europe and the United States before the outbreak of World War I. Several armies experimented vith automobile transportation before 1914. The growing demand for fossil fuels in the early decades of the twentieth centuiy was exacerbated by the modernizing armies that slowly introduced mechanization into their orders of battle. The traditional companions of the soldier, the horse and mule, were slowly replaced by the armored car and the truck in the early twentieth century. 

The prime mover is the unit that first converts an energy source into a mechanical force. Typical prime movers are internal combustion motors, gas turbines, water turbines, steam engines and electrical motors. The discussion will be limited to the prime movers that are most used in modern well drilling and production operations. These are internal combustion motors, gas turbine motors and electric motors. 

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