Instrument problem

Few column startups are completed without instrument problems. Instrument problems are not unique to startups they also occur during normal operation. Below are some of the most common instrument problems encountered during column startup and operation  

False signals When an instrument indicates an unexpected reading, it should be adequately checked rather than disbelieved, as it may indicate an unexpected process condition. It is always worth verifying this reading by looking at other instruments. In one incident (210), column instrument readings were overlooked for several hours after the bottom temperature controller failed. Eventually, flammable oil spilled from the reflux drum. 

Special attention should be paid to level float devices (e.g., controllers, switches, indicators) at startups. Occasionally, a float will collapse or drop off during pressure testing (421) or other commissioning operation. One technique for checking the float (421) is by lifting it with a rod, then wriggling the rod one can then usually hear the float hitting the side of the float chamber. 

Incorrect bottom (or reboiler) temperature indication This can be due to a faulty thermocouple, but a more likely cause is fouling of the thermowell. Ironically, bottom or reboiler thermocouple fouling tends to occur in services that are most vulnerable to a malfunction of this instrument, i.e., when heat-sensitive materials are distilled. A fouled thermowell will read low this in turn will enhance heat input into the column bottom, either automatically or by operator action. The greater heat input will accelerate thermal degradation in one peroxide service incident (97), it caused overheating and an explosion. 

A bottom temperature indicator measuring liquid temperature may read vapor temperature (which may be considerably lower) when the level drops. The consequences are similar to those of a fouled thermocouple. A malfunctioning level indicator can thus lead to a dangerously misleading, but apparently consistent, indication of both level and bottom temperature (Fig. 13.8). In one case (275), this led to overheating and an exothermic reaction at the column base, which in turn caused residue discharge from a column vent. 

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J. Mitchell (ed.), Applied Polymer Analysis and Characterization Recent Developments in Techniques, Instrumentation, Problem Solving, Hanser Publishers, Munich (1987). 

With the emergence of SWE as an alternative to SFE opportunities exist for combining derivatisation reactions with aqueous extractions. Although extractions using superheated and supercritical water yield pleasing results, many instrumental problems will have to be overcome before this technique is ready to leave the (academic) research laboratories [77]. This approach might play a significant role in future analytical extractions. 

Implementation of SFC has initially been hampered by instrumental problems, such as back-pressure regulation, need for syringe pumps, consistent flow-rates, pressure and density gradient control, modifier gradient elution, small volume injection (nL), poor reproducibility of injection, and miniaturised detection. These difficulties, which limited sensitivity, precision or reproducibility in industrial applications, were eventually overcome. Because instrumentation for SFC is quite complex and expensive, the technique is still not widely accepted. At the present time few SFC instrument manufacturers are active. Berger and Wilson [239] have described packed SFC instrumentation equipped with FID, UV/VIS and NPD, which can also be employed for open-tubular SFC in a pressure-control mode. Column technology has been largely borrowed from GC (for the open-tubular format) or from HPLC (for the packed format). Open-tubular coated capillaries (50-100 irn i.d.), packed capillaries (100-500 p,m i.d.), and packed columns (1 -4.6 mm i.d.) have been used for SFC (Table 4.27). 

Recently a decreased level of CE activity has been noticed with a shift of attention towards other separation techniques such as electrochromatography. CE is apparently not more frequently used partly because of early instrumental problems associated with lower sensitivity, sample injection, and lack of precision and reliability compared with HPLC. CE has slumped in many application areas with relatively few accepted routine methods and few manufacturers in the market place. While the slow acceptance of electrokinetic separations in polymer analysis has been attributed to conservatism [905], it is more likely that as yet no unique information has been generated in this area or eventually only the same information has been gathered in a more efficient manner than by conventional means. The applications of CE have recently been reviewed [949,950] metal ion determination by CE was specifically addressed by Pacakova et al. [951]. 

Historical instrumental problems (plugging with larger samples, carry-over effects)... 

The original NP- and PP-type preparatory sub-sequences can be refined to partially compensate instrumental problems such as magnet heating during the measurements (see Section IV.D). The results are the so-called balanced NP and balanced PP preparatory sub-sequences. 

Several diagnostic tools are discussed below and a summarj" is found at the end of the section in Table 5.1. These tools are used to investigate three aspects of tlie data set the model, the samples, and the variables. The headings for each tool indicate the aspects that are studied with that tool. The primary use of the model diagnostic tools is to investigate whether the CLS assumptions hold. The sample diagnostic tools are used to identify unusual samples. Finally, the variable diagnostics are used to identify abnormal variables within a spectrum that may indicate instrumental problems. 

J. G. Grasselli, S. E. Mocadlo, and J. R. Mooney, in Applied Polymer Analysis and Characterization Recent Developments in Techniques, Instrumentation, Problem Solving (J. Mitchell, Jr., ed.), Chap. III-A, Hanser Publishers, New York, 1987. 

A force measuring element permanently attached to the test piece holding jig may be the preferred way of monitoring the force and it certainly eliminates some instrumental problems. However, as mentioned earlier, cost considerations have resulted in most apparatus having individual jigs which are placed under a single force measuring head in turn. 

Another technique is supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), which is a chromatographic technique that in many ways is a hybrid of GC and HPLC. It is recognized as a valuable technique for the analysis of thermolabile compounds, which would not be amenable to analysis by GC or HPLC. Few applications have been reported for SFC in the field of OCP and OPP determination (16). The advantages reported for SFC are versatility in separation (by the addition of modifier or the choice of stationary phase) and detection (with LC or GC detectors). However, SFC is a little-used technique because it still presents a wide range of instrumental problems (14-16). 

On the other hand, with an efficient pumping system spectra of gaseous compounds can be observed, if the technique of differential pumping is employed. Gas spectra 29) normally show excellent resolution and no charging effects. Only water solutions as liquid beams 30) still cause severe instrumental problems and wait for a suitable solution. 

Both these effects require knowledge of the spectral and spacial radiation distributions of the radiation flux on a surface. The determination of both these distributions at a given location is a difficult instrumentation problem. In this paper, the effect of scattering processes in the atmosphere on the available energy of solar radiation on a surface is examined. Both the spectral and spacial effects of Rayleigh scattering are demonstrated. 

The application of constraints should always be prudent and soundly grounded, and constraints should only be set when there is an absolute certainty about the validity of the constraint. Even a potentially useful constraint can play a negative role in the resolution process when factors like experimental noise or instrumental problems distort the related profile or when the profile is modified so roughly that the convergence of the optimization process is seriously damaged. When well implemented and fulfilled by the data set, constraints can be seen as the driving forces of the iterative process to the right solution and, often, they are found not to be active in the last part of the optimization process. 

Raman spectroscopy failed to live up to its original expectation when the technique was discovered. This was due to instrumental problems, high cost of the instrument, and the fluorescence problem. However, with improvement in instrumentation, the use of a near infrared laser with FT-Raman, the introduction of fiber optics, the number of applications (some of which were discussed in Chapter 3) has escalated. The applications are expanded in this chapter, which deals with materials applications involving structural chemistry, solid state, and surfaces. Additional applications are presented in Chapter 5 (analytical applications), Chapter 6 (biochemical and medical applications) and Chapter 7 (industrial applications). 

The development of hyphenated techniques has depended on advances in at least three areas interfacing, scanning speed of the measuring technique, and adequate data systems. The different combinations of chromatography and on-line measuring instruments have different requirements, but a few generalizations can be made. Since the GC/MS combination is the most popular and successful, it will be described as a typical example of the types of considerations required for interfacing instruments. Problems associated with other interfaces will be mentioned briefly later. 

Small departures of normality do not significantly influence the use of the calibration model in residue analysis. However, major departures of normality are mostly related to analytical or instrumental problems. The use of an inappropriate calibration model can give rise to nonnormality of the residuals. In this case also, one or more of the other four basic assumptions have been violated. Normality can be evaluated by means of several statistical tests (i.e., Kolgomorov-Smirnov, Shapiro-Wilk W) or by constructing normal probability plots [8]. 

Similar distortions result from an instrumental problem that is common in older spectrometers. If the data are not exactly 90° out of phase,... 

Because of the many variables found in processing and the wide range over which these variables must be determined and controlled, the assistance of a skilled instrumentation engineer is essential in setting up a control system. Instrumentation problems caused by transmission lags, cycling due to slow or uncompensated response, radiation errors, or similar factors are commonly encountered in plant operation, but most of these problems can be eliminated if the control system is correctly designed. 

When the rerun is required due to matrix effects interferences or other problems encountered, the Government will pay the Contractor for the reruns. Such reruns shall be billable and accountable under the specified contract allotment of automatic reruns. When the rerun is required due to Contractor materials, equipment or instrumentation problems or lack of Contractor adherence to specified contract procedures, the rerun shall not be billable nor accountable under the terms of this contract. The Contractor s failure to perform any of the sample reruns specified herein, either billable or nonbillable shall be construed as Contractor nonperformance and may result in the termination of the contract for default. Specific requirements for reextraction and reanalysis are given in Section 17. 

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