Instrumentation and equipment

Combinatorial synthesis on solid phase can be performed in any organic laboratory without any need for dedicated instrumentation. 

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Measurements are made using appropriate equipment or instruments. The array of equipment and instrumentation used in analytical chemistry is impressive, ranging from the simple and inexpensive, to the complex and costly. With two exceptions, we will postpone the discussion of equipment and instrumentation to those chapters where they are used. The instrumentation used to measure mass and much of the equipment used to measure volume are important to all analytical techniques and are therefore discussed in this section. 

Examine a procedure from Standard Methods for the Analysis of Waters and Wastewaters (or another manual of standard analytical methods), and identify the steps taken to compensate for interferences, to calibrate equipment and instruments, to standardize the method, and to acquire a representative sample. 

An error due to limitations in the equipment and instruments used to make measurements. 

Time, Cost, and Equipment Automated chemical kinetic methods of analysis provide a rapid means for analyzing samples, with throughputs ranging from several hundred to several thousand determinations per hour. The initial start-up costs, however, may be fairly high because an automated analysis requires a dedicated instrument designed to meet the specific needs of the analysis. When handled manually, chemical kinetic methods can be accomplished using equipment and instrumentation routinely available in most laboratories. Sample throughput, however, is much lower than with automated methods. 

In many cases an optimized method may produce excellent results in the laboratory developing the method, but poor results in other laboratories. This is not surprising since a method is often optimized by a single analyst under an ideal set of conditions, in which the sources of reagents, equipment, and instrumentation remain the same for each trial. The procedure might also be influenced by environmental factors, such as the temperature or relative humidity in the laboratory, whose levels are not specified in the procedure and which may differ between laboratories. Finally, when optimizing a method the analyst usually takes particular care to perform the analysis in exactly the same way during every trial. 

Those instructions outlining how to properly use equipment and instrumentation to ensure the quality of measurements. 

Good measurement practices (GMPs) describe operations specific to a technique. In general, GMPs provide instructions for maintaining, calibrating, and using the equipment and instrumentation that form the basis for a specific technique. For example, a GMP for a titration describes how to calibrate a buret (if nec-... 

Review of planned operation of process, especially the possibility of upsets, modes of failure, unexpec ted delays, redundancy of equipment and instrumentation, critical instruments and controls, and worst-credible-case scenarios... 

The process equipment train consisted of a storage tank farm, an initiator pot, some small addition pots and a reactor. Multiple processes were run in the system and the equipment and instrumentation had to handle a variety of... 

Elements of a meehanieal integrity program inelude the identifying and eategorizing equipment and instrumentation inspeetions and tests and their frequeney maintenanee proeedures training of maintenanee personnel eriteria for aeeeptable test results doeumentation of test and inspeetion results and doeumentation of manufaeturer reeommendations for equipment and instrumentation. 

The first step of an effeetive meehanieal integrity program is to eompile and eategorize a list of proeess equipment and instrumentation to inelude in the program. This list ineludes pressure vessels, storage tanks,... 

Piping and Instrument diagrams (P IDs - not shown) may be even more appropriate for showing these details and to provide information for PSA. The P IDs are used to describe the relationships between equipment and instrumentation and other relevant information that enhances clarity. 

Equipment used to process, store, or handle highly hazardous chemicals must be designed constructed, installed and maintained to minimize the risk of release. A systematic, scheduled, test and maintenance program is preferred over "breakdown" maintenance " that could compromise safety. Elements of a mechanical integrity program include 1) identification and categorization of equipment and instrumentation, 2) documentation of manufacturer data on mean time to failure, 3 ) test and inspection frequencies, 4) maintenance procedures, 5) training of maintenance personnel, 6) test criteria, and 7) documentation of test and inspection results. 

These include identification of process equipment and instruments, interpretation of the meaning of their values and trends, navigation through different VDU pages by means of a selection menu, etc. The common feature of these tasks is handling the display system to search and locate relevant process data. In this respect, "classical" ergonomics checklists (see Chapter 4) are very useful in facilitating performance of such tasks. 

For final design horsepower and equipment selection, the usual practice is to submit the refrigeration load and utility conditions/requirements to a reputable refrigerant system designer/manufacturer and obtain a warranted system with equipment and instrumentation design and specifications including the important materials of construction. Always request detailed operating instructions/controls and utility quantity requirements. 

Cross-disciplinary partnership awards Equipment and Facilities Equipment and instrumentation grants Regional and national equipment facilities... 

This paper describes work on equipment and instrumentation aimed at a computer-assisted lab-scale resin prep, facility. The approach has been to focus on hardware modules which could be developed and used incrementally on route to system integration. Thus, a primary split of process parameters was made into heat transfer and temperature control, and mass transfer and agitation. In the first of these the paper reports work on a range of temperature measurement, indicators and control units. On the mass transfer side most attention has been on liquid delivery systems with a little work on stirrer drives. Following a general analysis of different pump types the paper describes a programmable micro-computer multi-pump unit and gives results of its use. 

An analytical method can be considered rugged when it can be transferred from one laboratory to another with comparable experience without much effort in adaptation to the different technical personnel and to the different equipment and instrumentation. 

The design of electrical equipment and instrumentation is based on the nature of the process hazards or specific process classifications. The classification method is defined in the National Electrical Code it is a function of the nature and degree of the process hazards within a particular area. The rating method includes Classes I, II, and III, Groups A-G, and Divisions... 

When designing an XP area, all pieces of electrical equipment and instrumentation are specified for the class, group, and division, as discussed previously. All pieces of equipment and instrumentation within an area must be appropriately specified and installed. The overall classification is only as good as the piece of equipment in an area with the lowest classification. 

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