Industrial processes synthesis

These generic interfaces are applicable in all of the oil industry processes synthesis of fuels, refining, and heavy oil production. As a result, clean massive hydrogen production is a technology enabling substantial C02 abatements in the oil industry (Boardman, 2008 Forsberg, 2009). 

In addition to the processes mentioned above, there are also ongoing efforts to synthesize formamide direcdy from carbon dioxide [124-38-9J, hydrogen [1333-74-0] and ammonia [7664-41-7] (29—32). Catalysts that have been proposed are Group VIII transition-metal coordination compounds. Under moderate reaction conditions, ie, 100—180°C, 1—10 MPa (10—100 bar), turnovers of up to 1000 mole formamide per mole catalyst have been achieved. However, since expensive noble metal catalysts are needed, further work is required prior to the technical realization of an industrial process for formamide synthesis based on carbon dioxide. 

Nitromethane. The nitroparaffins are used widely as raw materials for synthesis. Nitromethane is used to produce the nitro alcohol (qv) 2-(hydroxymethyl)-2-nitro-l,3-propanediol, which is a registered biocide useful for control of bacteria in a number of industrial processes. This nitro alcohol also serves as the raw material for the production of the alkanolamine (qv) 2-amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)-l,3-propanediol, which is an important buffering agent useful in a number of pharmaceutical appHcations. 

Continuous-Flow Stirred-Tank Reactors. The synthesis of j )-tolualdehyde from toluene and carbon monoxide has been carried out using CSTR equipment (81). -Tolualdehyde (PTAL) is an intermediate in the manufacture of terephthabc acid. Hydrogen fluoride—boron trifluoride catalyzes the carbonylation of toluene to PTAL. In the industrial process, separate stirred tanks are used for each process step. Toluene and recycle HF and BF ... 

Acid-Gatalyzed Synthesis. The acid-catalysed reaction of alkenes with hydrogen sulfide to prepare thiols can be accompHshed using a strong acid (sulfuric or phosphoric acid) catalyst. Thiols can also be prepared continuously over a variety of soHd acid catalysts, such as seoHtes, sulfonic acid-containing resin catalysts, or aluminas (22). The continuous process is utilised commercially to manufacture the more important thiols (23,24). The acid-catalysed reaction is commonly classed as a Markownikoff addition. Examples of two important industrial processes are 2-methyl-2-propanethiol and 2-propanethiol, given in equations 1 and 2, respectively. 

A typical fermentation medium for penicillin production contains lactose, com steep Hquot, and calcium carbonate (3,153,154). In most industrial processes the carbohydrate source, glucose, beet molasses, or lactose, is continuously added to the fermentation. The rate of glucose addition must be carefully monitored, by pH or rate of oxygen depletion, because the synthesis of penicillin is markedly reduced in the presence of excess glucose. 

Thermal chlorination of methane was first put on an industrial scale by Hoechst in Germany in 1923. At that time, high pressure methanol synthesis from hydrogen and carbon monoxide provided a new source of methanol for production of methyl chloride by reaction with hydrogen chloride. Prior to 1914 attempts were made to estabHsh an industrial process for methanol by hydrolysis of methyl chloride obtained by chlorinating methane. 

Distillation (qv) is the most widely used separation technique in the chemical and petroleum industries. Not aU. Hquid mixtures are amenable to ordinary fractional distillation, however. Close-boiling and low relative volatihty mixtures are difficult and often uneconomical to distill, and azeotropic mixtures are impossible to separate by ordinary distillation. Yet such mixtures are quite common (1) and many industrial processes depend on efficient methods for their separation (see also Separation systems synthesis). This article describes special distillation techniques for economically separating low relative volatihty and azeotropic mixtures. 

Tong, R.M. (1978) Synthesis of fuzzy models for industrial processes, Int. J. General Systems, 4, pp. 143-162. 

F. Haber s catalytic synthesis of NH3 developed in collaboration with C. Bosch into a large-scale industrial process by 1913. (Hater was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements Bosch shared the 1931 Nobel Prize for contributions to the invention and development of chemical high-pressure methods , the Hater synthesis of NH3 being the first high-pressure industrial process.)... 

The production of ammonia is of historical interest because it represents the first important application of thermodynamics to an industrial process. Considering the synthesis reaction of ammonia from its elements, the calculated reaction heat (AH) and free energy change (AG) at room temperature are approximately -46 and -16.5 KJ/mol, respectively. Although the calculated equilibrium constant = 3.6 X 108 at room temperature is substantially high, no reaction occurs under these conditions, and the rate is practically zero. The ammonia synthesis reaction could be represented as follows ... 

Much of organic chemistry is simply the chemistry of carbonyl compounds. Aldehydes and ketones, in particular, are intermediates in the synthesis of many pharmaceutical agents, in almost all biological pathways, and in numerous industrial processes, so an understanding of their properties and reactions is essential. We ll look in this chapter at some of their most important reactions. 

The products of this electrolysis have a variety of uses. Chlorine is used to purify drinking water large quantities of it are consumed in making plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Hydrogen, prepared in this and many other industrial processes, is used chiefly in the synthesis of ammonia (Chapter 12). Sodium hydroxide (lye), obtained on evaporation of the electrolyte, is used in processing pulp and paper, in the purification of aluminum ore, in the manufacture of glass and textiles, and for many other purposes. 

Perhaps the most successful industrial process for the synthesis of menthol is employed by the Takasago Corporation in Japan.4 The elegant Takasago Process uses a most effective catalytic asymmetric reaction - the (S)-BINAP-Rh(i)-catalyzed asymmetric isomerization of an allylic amine to an enamine - and furnishes approximately 30% of the annual world supply of menthol. The asymmetric isomerization of an allylic amine is one of a large and growing number of catalytic asymmetric processes. Collectively, these catalytic asymmetric reactions have dramatically increased the power and scope of organic synthesis. Indeed, the discovery that certain chiral transition metal catalysts can dictate the stereo-... 

In a catalytic asymmetric reaction, a small amount of an enantio-merically pure catalyst, either an enzyme or a synthetic, soluble transition metal complex, is used to produce large quantities of an optically active compound from a precursor that may be chiral or achiral. In recent years, synthetic chemists have developed numerous catalytic asymmetric reaction processes that transform prochiral substrates into chiral products with impressive margins of enantio-selectivity, feats that were once the exclusive domain of enzymes.56 These developments have had an enormous impact on academic and industrial organic synthesis. In the pharmaceutical industry, where there is a great emphasis on the production of enantiomeri-cally pure compounds, effective catalytic asymmetric reactions are particularly valuable because one molecule of an enantiomerically pure catalyst can, in principle, direct the stereoselective formation of millions of chiral product molecules. Such reactions are thus highly productive and economical, and, when applicable, they make the wasteful practice of racemate resolution obsolete. 

The emergence of the powerful Sharpless asymmetric epoxida-tion (SAE) reaction in the 1980s has stimulated major advances in both academic and industrial organic synthesis.14 Through the action of an enantiomerically pure titanium/tartrate complex, a myriad of achiral and chiral allylic alcohols can be epoxidized with exceptional stereoselectivities (see Chapter 19 for a more detailed discussion). Interest in the SAE as a tool for industrial organic synthesis grew substantially after Sharpless et al. discovered that the asymmetric epoxidation process can be conducted with catalytic amounts of the enantiomerically pure titanium/tartrate complex simply by adding molecular sieves to the epoxidation reaction mix-... 

Biotechnology has attracted enormous interest and high expectations over the past decade. However, the implementation of new technologies into industrial processes has been slower than initially predicted. Although biocatalytic methods hold great industrial potential, there are relatively few commercial applications of biocatalysts in organic chemical synthesis. The main factors that limit the application of biocatalysts are ... 

The Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia is one of the most significant industrial processes for the well-being of humanity. It is used extensively in the production of fertilizers as well as polymers and other products, (a) What volume of hydrogen at 15.00 atm and 350.°C must be supplied to produce 1.0 tonne (1 t = 10 kg) of NH3 (b) What volume of hydrogen is needed in part (a) if it is supplied at 376 atm and 250.°C ... 

The "direct synthesis (39) has obvious attractions as an industrial process, but, in the absence of a catalyst, it proceeds readily only for allyl and benzyl halides, and much attention has been directed towards finding suitable promoters for the reactions. 

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