Industrial process sources

Of the remaining nine problem AQCR s in the eastern United States, seven could achieve the primary standard by the additional control of industrial process sources, particularly oil refineries. Only in two AQCR s does elimination of coal and oil combustion in favor of natural gas or synthetic sulfur-free fuel appear necessary to achieve the primary standard. 

Controlling the Industrial Process Sources of Sulfur Oxides... 

Friedel-Crafts alkylation using alkenes has important industrial appHcations. The ethylation of benzene with ethylene to ethylbenzene used in the manufacture of styrene, is one of the largest scale industrial processes. The reaction is done under the catalysis of AlCl in the presence of a proton source, ie, H2O, HCl, etc, although other catalysts have also gained significance. 

Direct-current arcs into which no material is introduced have many appHcations as heat sources. Industrial processing of metals using plasma torches has been carried out in the former USSR (126). Thermal plasmas also are used in surface and heat treatment of materials (127,128). Metals can be... 

Among the properties sought in the solvent are low cost, avadabihty, stabiUty, low volatiUty at ambient temperature, limited miscibility in aqueous systems present in the process, no solvent capacity for the salts, good solvent capacity for the acids, and sufficient difference in distribution coefficient of the two acids to permit their separation in the solvent-extraction operation. Practical solvents are C, C, and alcohols. For industrial process, alcohols are the best choice (see Amyl alcohols). Small quantities of potassium nitrate continue to be produced from natural sources, eg, the caUche deposits in Chile. 

A typical fermentation medium for penicillin production contains lactose, com steep Hquot, and calcium carbonate (3,153,154). In most industrial processes the carbohydrate source, glucose, beet molasses, or lactose, is continuously added to the fermentation. The rate of glucose addition must be carefully monitored, by pH or rate of oxygen depletion, because the synthesis of penicillin is markedly reduced in the presence of excess glucose. 

Thermal chlorination of methane was first put on an industrial scale by Hoechst in Germany in 1923. At that time, high pressure methanol synthesis from hydrogen and carbon monoxide provided a new source of methanol for production of methyl chloride by reaction with hydrogen chloride. Prior to 1914 attempts were made to estabHsh an industrial process for methanol by hydrolysis of methyl chloride obtained by chlorinating methane. 

This was an industrial process for chloroform, but there are no plants currendy using this technology. This reaction is possibly an important source of chloroform in the water treating process. 

The conversion of chemical energy by oxidative processes at high temperatures is a major source of heat for many industrial processes and, on a more sophisticated plane, for the propulsion of aircraft and advanced rockets, such as the Shuttle. The generation of high temperatures by these reactions... 

A substantial portion of fhe gas and vapors emitted to the atmosphere in appreciable quantity from anthropogenic sources tends to be relatively simple in chemical structure carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitric oxide from combustion processes hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride from industrial processes. The solvents and gasoline fractions that evaporate are alkanes, alkenes, and aromatics with relatively simple structures. In addition, more complex... 

Table 5. Energy requirements of four industrial desalination processes. (Source International Atomic Energy Agency 1992.)...

Emission factors are emission rales dclcrniincd by regulatory agencies based on data generated from a given source that arc nornialized to some unit of production or rale of chemical use. These factors are compiled for industries, processes or sources. Tliis information is used to esliniale einission rates without a detailed analysis. The emission factor must be closely related to die... 

Throughout the industrialized world over the past two centuries, coal became relied upon as an energy source for industrial processes and for residential heat. In the United States, all the coal consumed before the year 1800—much of it imported from Britain—amounted to only 108,000 tons, which is one ten-thousandth of current annual U.S. production. Until 1840, wood exceeded coal as an energy source. However, coal then began a slow, steady expansion in usage, and, for over a century, until 1951, it was the chief energy source in the United States, contributing in the area of transportation (railroads) as well as the earlier, familiar sectors of industrial processes and residential heat. 

Direct geothermal energy is used for space heating of homes, greenhouses, livestock barns, and fish-farm ponds. As well, it is employed as a heat source in some industrial processes, such as paper production in New Zealand and diying diatomite in Iceland. Since the industrial applications usually require high-... 

Electric motors are the most common drivers for the m ority of pumps, compressors, agitators, and similar equipment in the process industries. Process engineers should obtain the assistance of a qualified electrical engineer before completing motor specifications ior the wide variety of equipment applications and respective power sources. The use of standard specifications for the various types and classes of motors is helpful and reduces repetitious details. Be certain that the type of motor is properly matched to the service, atmosphere, load characteristics, and available type and power factor of the electrical energy to drive the motor. Some basic guides are summarized, but they cannot be used as all-inclusive rules to fit all plant or equipment condi-... 

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