Pipeline imports

There are 3 entrance points at the intersections with the import pipelines ... 

Storage for security of gas supplies to Georgia i.e. a strategic gas reserve is mainly associated with the difficult political situation between Georgia and Russia, not least in connection with the situation in Chechnya. The existing 2 import pipelines are located close to Chechnya and may be exposed to sabotage and other incidents that may jeopardise the reliability of the gas supply to Georgia and the transit to Armenia. 

The determination of the necessary gas storage capacity is based upon the approach of primarily using the storage as security of supply in case of disruption of the gas imports from Russia. Secondarily, the gas storage could potentially be used for both security of supply and for seasonal load balancing to match peak gas demand in extreme situations caused by several days of extremely low temperatures. But there is less need for seasonal storage because there is surplus capacity in the import pipelines and the transmission system to handle today s gas consumption as well as the gas demand projected in 2020 and in fact beyond that point. 

Months supply in national storage When a country has its own gas storage it becomes less vulnerable to short time disruptions in the import pipelines. It will therefore increase security of supply to have a national storage. 

Import pipelines The higher the number of import pipelines, the less impact will a problem with a single pipeline have. Additional pipelines will therefore increase security of supply. 

Delivery at the border where separately owned and operated exporting and importing pipelines interconnect ... 

Thus for India and China, a strong case can be made that their natural suppliers are Gulf and Central Asian countries and Eastern Siberia/Russian Far East, respectively, and that the most advantageous mode of transportation is pipeline gas. It makes less economic sense for these relatively poor countries to attempt to compete with much richer OECD importers for ENG, when they could import pipeline gas supplies for which - certainly in the case of East Siberian gas and arguably for other sources - they have few competitors. Should they choose to compete for ENG supplies with Europe (and the US) then this will be for Middle East supplies, principally from Qatar. This picture suggests that neither China nor India is likely to become, or seek to become, a serious competitor to Europe for gas supplies up to 2020. However, to the extent that the political and geopolitical problems suggested in this chapter create limits on Russian and Middle Eastern gas exports to Europe and North America, China and India may become more attractive markets for those exporters. 

The measurement of a crude oil s viscosity at different temperatures is particularly important for the calculation of pressure drop in pipelines and refinery piping systems, as well as for the specification of pumps and exchangers. 

To support them, therefore, immense activities are prompted both in pubh c private sectors with increasing importance on NDT. The particular application of radiography using Ir-192 isotopes for industrial production, construction maintenance of industries, power plants, oil and gas pipelines plants, railway, aviation systems, naval structures and vessels, etc is currently in the fore front for its reliabih ly, ease of application record keeping advantages. 

The Institute has many-year experience of investigations and developments in the field of NDT. These are, mainly, developments which allowed creation of a series of eddy current flaw detectors for various applications. The Institute has traditionally studied the physico-mechanical properties of materials, their stressed-strained state, fracture mechanics and developed on this basis the procedures and instruments which measure the properties and predict the behaviour of materials. Quite important are also developments of technologies and equipment for control of thickness and adhesion of thin protective coatings on various bases, corrosion control of underground pipelines by indirect method, acoustic emission control of hydrogen and corrosion cracking in structural materials, etc. 

Natural gas imports have grown more slowly because imports from overseas require governmental Hcenses and cryogenic Hquefaction plants are very expensive. Natural gas imports are chiefly by pipeline from Canada (see Gas, natural). 

The commodity nature of the product and the easy access to the Hcensed processes enable new producers, particularly in developing countries, to enter the global styrene merchant market with Htde experience in styrene technology. Access to ethylene, which caimot be easily transported by means other than pipelines, is a key factor in considering new styrene faciHties. Timing, or luck, is even more important because the supply and demand of styrene are seldom in balance and the price fluctuates broadly and rapidly as a result. Most of the time, the producers either suffer losses (1981—1985, 1991—1993) or enjoy handsome profits (1987—1990, 1994—mid-1995). Investments in styrene plants are known to have been recovered in less than a year, but prosperity encourages over-investment and lean years may foUow. 

A 2.54-cm Styrofoam plastic foam with thermal conductivity of ca 0.03 W/ (m-K) (0.21 (Btu-in.)/(ft-b°F)) is equivalent to 61 cm of gravel. Any synthetic foam having compressive strength sufficiently high and thermal conductivity sufficiently low is effective. However, the resistance of PS-type foams to water, frost damage, and microorganisms in the sod makes them especially desirable. An interesting and important appHcation of this concept was the use of Styrofoam in the constmction of the Alaska pipeline. In this case, the foam was used to protect the permafrost. 

In chemical process applications, one-dimensional gas flows through nozzles or orifices and in pipelines are the most important apphcations of compressible flow. Multidimensional external flows are of interest mainly in aerodynamic applications. 

Protection current density and coating resistance are important for the current distribution and for the range of the electrochemical protection. The coating resistance determines, as does the polarization resistance, the polarization parameter (see Sections 2.2.5 and 24.5). For pipelines the protection current density determines the length of the protection range (see Section 24.4.3). 

Factors that are important for the limitation of protected areas are the pipe network structure, degree of mesh, number of service pipes, type of pipe connections, quality of the pipe coating and availability of protection current as well as stray current effects. A protected area in a distribution network is shown in Fig. 10-11 with separate parts of the network (NT I to NT IV). Previous experience has shown that protected areas of 1 to 2 km with lengths of pipeline from 10 to 20 km are advantageous [30],... 

Cooling water pipes are essential for the operation of power stations and must not cease to function. Pipelines for fire fighting are also important for safety reasons. Such steel pipelines are usually well coated. At areas of unavoidable damage to the pipe coating, there is an increased danger due to cell formation between steel and concrete where local corrosion rates of >1 mm a are to be expected [4], Damage to pipelines for fire fighting has frequently been observed after only a few years in service. 

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